Decision making Flashcards
how do we choose between two things: classical method
= normale aanpak
attach value to an outcome (what is an event worth to u)
assess its probability (what is the likelihood)
probability * value = expected value
-> optie kiezen met de hoogste EV
problems classical method
- hoe weet je de probability
- hoe weet je all possible outcomes
- hoe weet je de values van wat het worth is to u
wat doen we om om dit op te lossen (de problemen)
use heuristics (rule of thumb)
heuristics soorten
- satisfying -> you choose the first option that meets your criteria
- anchoring -> we accept and rely on the information that we receive first
- subjective utility -> we are let by our own expected utility (what is it worth to me) rather than expected value (what is it worth)
wealth increase means…
steeds kleinere increase van utility (1 euro als je maar 100 euro hebt vs 1 euro als je 1.000.000 hebt)
hoe het heet effect tussen wealth and utility
diminishing marginal utility (the more you have, the more you need)
wat kiezen mensen in positief/gain frame
safe choice
wat kiezen mensen in negatief/loss frame
risky choice
at gebeurt er als mensen een andere strategie kiezen dan normaal (risky in gain frame, of safe in loss frame)
activity in dm PFC
framing effect
the way a dilemma is formulated can have a large impact on the option people choose
pospect theory algemeen
mensen willen loss aversion!
prospect theory detailed
the decrease of utility due to losses is larger than the increase of utility due to winnings.
= losing is harder than winning
2 aspects of prospect theory
- reference dependence: choices depend on the situation, different people may choose different things
- probability weighting
probability weighting
people overestimate chances with low probability (car accident)
people underestimate chances with high probability (getting cancer)
endownment effect
(part of prospect theory)
people ask more money for something they own, than what they would pay for it themselves.
- selling feels like a loss -> loss aversion, subjective value is higher when you lose it than when you win it
primary reinforcers
(=positive reinforcers)
food, water, sex
secondary reinforcers
have no intrinsic value, but can achieve primary reinforcers
money
negative reinforcement
removal of aversive/negative outcome
punishment
delivery of aversive outcome
which brain areas are activated by primary reinforcers
ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum), rest of the brain via dopaminergic pathways
VTA projects to
nucleus accumbens, amygdalae, hippocampus, medial PFC
addiction to all drugs is linked to..
dopaminergic activity in the reward circuit
rats are highly motivated to..
stimulate their VTA
dopamine is about liking/motivation
motivation!! (NOT liking)
rats, dopamine and liking?
rats without dopaminergic neurons still have normal reactions to things they like. but they do not look for things they like = motivation
which tracts are necessary for motivation
VTA-NA tracts
to which neurotransmitter is liking related
endorphins
stimulation of nucleus accumbens causes dopamine release only if…
the stimulus happens unexpected
liking and wanting: The brain happens to use two types of neurotransmitters for this, but normally they work together
oke
lastige met extrinsic rewards
if people intrinsically like something, this can get fucked up by extrinsic rewards. -> loss of internal motivation
extrinsic rewards can lead to loss of internal motivation: experiment that shows this
Participants played a game
in which they had to stop
a timer at exact 5 s
Half of the participants
received a reward during
the first session only,
control subjects never
received a reward
Activation in the ventral
striatum disappeared in
session 2 in people who
were rewarded first
minder activiteit in ventral striatum if rewarded
neurons in VTA fire when….
something changes in the information about getting the reward -> learning!
(dus activity in VTA gaat niet om de reward zelf)
how do we show that it is about the information we have regarding how to get the reward
monkeys learn to press lever, get juice. -> increased VTA response at reward.
later they need to press lever only when light is on (discrimination training) -> increased VTA response at the cue
VTA activation also reflects…
prediction errors (false prediction = more activation).
unpredictible rewards = activation in…
VTA and ACC
unexpected losses cause
negative polarity in EEG in ACC
where can the effects of rewards be seen…
all throughout the brain
most dopamine neurons react strongest to… and are inhibited by…
rewards, punishment
but some neurons…
in the midbrain dopamine system get activated by rewards and punishments! (air puffs)
prediction error =
wanneer je iets verwacht maar er niks gebeurd, of andersom
uncertainty due to…
what whill the outcome be???
- risk aversion
- ambiguity avoidance
when will the outcome occur???
- delay discounting
risk =
estimated variance in possible outcomes
areas involved in risk assessment
- dlPFC
- dmPFC
- PPC posterior parietal lobe
- anterior part insula
which areas are involved in executive functions?
dlPFC, dmPFC, PPC
anterior insula activity
standard economic decisions, gain/loss anticipation
dmPFC activity regarding information
with limited information, if the outcomes are unclear (rolling a dice)
ambiguity
if you do not know the probability of an outcome
dus different areas for ambiguity and risk
ambiguity -> dm PFC, dl PFC
risk -> insula
ambiguity activity where
dlPFC
uncertainty due to delay
the further in the future, the less the reward is worth
eerst prefer … and then you prefer …
small soon
large late (na een bepaalde tijd moet je toch wachten; dus dan maakt het niet meer uit)
hoe noem je dat je dingen later minder graag wil
delay discounting
dual system model
system 1: think fast, automatic, parallel, context dependent, emotionally controlled
system 2: slow, serial, controlled, (cost-benefit analysis)
system 1 which brain areas
ventral striatum, posterior cingulate cortex, mPFC
system 2 which brain areas
lateral prefrontal cortex
Other evidence shows that
System 1 may be active
for decisions involving
longer delays as well
oke
monkeys would pay in juice to look at
- grey squares
- low ranking monkeys
+ high ranking monkeys
+ female mating
attractive faces activate…
ventrial striatum, PFC
prosocial behaviour activates..
ventral striatum, and regions involved in social cognition
best strategy in prisoners dilemma
consistent cooporation
cooporation = increase in…
nucleus accumbens
how to measure cooporation
iterative trust game
endownment phase - trust phase - reciprocity phase
what is the strongest predictor of trust
reciprocity.
- When the investor increased the
investment after the response of the
trustee, trustee’s trust increased - When the investor decreased the
investment after the response of the
trustee, trustee’s trust decreased
activity in trustee
caudate nucleus
which part does the investor use for cognitive control
cingulate gyrus
unfair offers lead to brain activity in the …
insula
which part of the brain accepts the unfair offer
right dlPFC
altruistic punishment; wat is het en waar activiteit
- when people punish each other, although it costs something for themselves!
- ventral striatum
