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controlling the internal environment (kidneys) Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two ways that animals can manage their internal environment

A

they either conform or regulate

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2
Q

what is a regulator

A

an animal that uses internal mechanisms to control internal change in the face of external fluctuation

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3
Q

what is a conformer

A

an animals who’s internal conditions change in accordance with external changes

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4
Q

can an animal regulate some internal conditions while allowing others to conform to the environment

A

yes - e.g. largemouth bass conforms to the temperature of the surrounding water but it regulates the solute concentrations in its blood and interstitial fluid

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5
Q

the steady temperature of a river otter and the stable concentration of solutes in a bass are examples of what

A

homeostasis

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6
Q

what does homeostasis mean

A

the maintenance of a constant internal environment

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7
Q

what are examples of homeostasis in humans

A

temperature regulation
blood pH regulation
blood glucose concentration regulation

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8
Q

what is the normal range of blood glucose concentration per 100ml blood

A

70-110mg glucose

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9
Q

what does homeostasis require

A

control system

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10
Q

in homeostasis the response reduces/dampens the stimulus what kind of feedback response is this

A

negative feedback

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11
Q

are physiological responses to stimuli instantaneous

A

no - homeostasis moderate but does not eliminate changes in the internal environment

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12
Q

what would positive feed back involve

A

amplification of the stimulus - generally not in animal homeostasis but in other processes e.g. giving birth - stimulus drives completion of process

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13
Q

in all mammals and plants, certain cyclic alterations in metabolism reflect what

A

a circadian rhythm

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14
Q

what is a circadian rhythm

A

a set of physiological changes that occur every 24 hours - e.g. the body clock

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15
Q

which hormone is secreted at night

A

melatonin

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16
Q

can external stimuli reset the biological clock

A

yes - but it takes a while, this is why we get jet lag

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17
Q

what is jet lag

A

a miss match between the circadian rhythm and local environment that persists until the clock fully resets

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18
Q

acclimatization can alter homeostasis, what is it

A

an animals physiological adjustment to changes in its external environment e.g. when an elk moves up into the mountains from sea level, the lower oxygen concentration stimulates the animal to breathe more rapidly and deeply. As a result more CO2 is lost through exhaling, raising the blood pH above its normal range

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19
Q

is acclimatization a permanent or temporary change

A

temporary

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20
Q

how is the fluid balance of tissues maintained

A

relative concentrations of water and solutes are kept within fairly narrow limits. ions must be maintained at concentrations that permit normal activity of muscles, neurons and other body cells

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21
Q

homeostasis requires osmoregulation, what is this

A

the processes by which animals control solute concentration and balance water gain and loss

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22
Q

in order to safeguard their body fluids freshwater animals must deal with what toxic metabolite

A

ammonia

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23
Q

which process remove nitrogenous waste and other metabolic waste products

A

excretion

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24
Q

if water uptake to cells is excessive what happens to them

A

they can burst

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25
Q

if water loss from cells is substantial what can happen to them

A

they shrivel and die

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26
Q

what is the ultimate driving force for the movement of water and solutes

A

a concentration gradient of one or more solutes across the plasma membrane

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27
Q

water enters and leaves cells by which process

A

osmosis

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28
Q

what is the unit of measurement for solute concentration

A

osmolarity (the number of moles of solution per litre of solution)

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29
Q

what is the osmolarity of human blood

A

300mOsm/L

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30
Q

two solutions with the same osmolarity are said to be what

A

isosmotic

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31
Q

what is a hyperosmotic solution

A

the solution with the higher concentration of solutes

low free H2O concentration

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32
Q

what is a hypoosmotic solution

A

the solution with the lower concentration of solutes

high free H2O concentration

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33
Q

in which direction does water flow by osmosis:
hyperosmotic to hypoosmotic
hypoosmotic to hyperosmotic

A

hypoosmotic to hyperosmotic - reducing the concentration difference in solutes and free water

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34
Q

what are the two ways that an animal can maintain water balance

A

either by being an osmoconformer or an osmoregulator

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35
Q

which term defines the relationship between the osmolarity of the an osmoconformer to its surroundings

A

isosmotic - internal osmolarity is the same as that of the external environment
many osmoconformers life in an environment that has a stable composition so they will have a stable internal environment

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36
Q

what does an osmoregulator do

A

control their internal osmolarity, independent of that of the external environment

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37
Q

can osmoconformers move between freshwater and marine (sea water) environments

A

no they are all marine animals

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38
Q

can osmoregulators move between freshwater and marine (sea water) environments

A

yes

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39
Q

in a hypoosmotic environment an osmoregulator must discharge/take in water

A

discharge - the water is going to flow into them so in order to maintain a constant internal environment they need to combat this by discharging the excess water

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40
Q

in a hyperosmotic environment an osmoregulator must discharge/take in water

A

take in - the water is going to flow out of them so in order to maintain a constant internal environment they need to combat this by taking in water

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41
Q

what does it mean if an organism is stenohaline

A

they cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity

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42
Q

what does it mean if an organism is euryhaline

A

it can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity

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43
Q

most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers/regulators

A

osmoconformers

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44
Q

invertebrate marine osmoconformers have not trouble in water balance but they must actively transport specific solutes that establish what

A

levels in haemolymph (circulatory fluid) different form those in the ocean

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45
Q

marine bony fish constantly lose water by osmosis, they balance water loss by drinking a lot of sea water. how are the excess salts ingested eliminated

A

through the gills and the kidneys

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46
Q

osmoregulation is frequently coupled to elimination of what

A

nitrogenous waste products e.g. urea

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47
Q

why must urea be eliminated

A

high concentrations can denature proteins and thus disrupt cellular functions

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48
Q

sharks have high concentrations of urea in their body. how do they survive

A

trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) is produced by sharks and it protects proteins from the denaturing effect of urea

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49
Q

as well as protecting sharks from the effects of urea, what else is TMAO responsible for

A

osmoregulation

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50
Q

how does TMAO participate in osmoregulation

A

sharks have a lower salt content than sea water
salt tends to diffuse into their bodies, especially across the gills
the combination of TMAO with salts and urea results in sharks having a high solute concentration
water then slowly enters the shark by osmosis (they don’t drink)

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51
Q

the body fluids of freshwater animals must be hyperosmotic/hypoosmotic

A

hyperosmotic

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52
Q

why do the body fluids of freshwater animals need to be hyperosmotic

A

animal cells cannot tolerate salt concentrations as low as that of lake or river water

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53
Q

freshwater animals have internal fluids with an osmolarity higher/lower than that of their surroundings

A

higher

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54
Q

why do freshwater animals face problems gaining water by osmosis

A

because the osmolarity of internal fluids is greater than that of their surroundings their solute concentration is greater and their water concentration is lower leading to and influx of water. this means they have to balance water content to stabilise the influx

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55
Q

how do freshwater organisms with the influx of water into their bodies

A

they excrete large amounts of very dilute urine and they drink almost all water. slats lost by diffusion and in urine are replenished by eating and uptake across their gills

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56
Q

what is another word for extreme dehydration

A

desiccation

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57
Q

when ponds dry up what is the dormant stage that animals enter without water

A

anhydrobiosis

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58
Q

what adaptations does anhydrobiosis require

A

ones that keep cell membranes intact or else they would shrivel up and die

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59
Q

adaptations that reduce/increase water loss are key to survival on land

A

reduce

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60
Q

how do land animals maintain water balance

A

by drinking and eating moist foods and by producing water metabolically through cellular respiration

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61
Q

in most animals, osmoregulation and metabolic waste disposal rely on what for moving particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions

A

transport epithelia

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62
Q

what is transport epithelia

A

one or more epithelial cells specialized for moving particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions

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63
Q

why do humans become dehydrated when they drink salt water

A

they must use a greater volume of water to excrete the salt load so there is a net loss of water from the body

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64
Q

even though drinking sea water brings a lot of salt, the salt glands enable marine invertebrates to achieve a net gain/loss of water

A

gain

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65
Q

what functions does the kidney have

A

osmoregulation and excretion

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66
Q

what do the kidneys consist of

A

tubules , ducts and other structures

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67
Q

how are kidney tubules arranged

A

in an organised manner and are closely associated with a network of capillaries

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68
Q

are kidneys typically segmented or non segmented

A

non segmented

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69
Q

how many kidneys are in the body

A

2

70
Q

urine produced in the kidneys exits through a duct called the ……………..

A

ureter

71
Q

where to the 2 ureters coming from the kidneys drain into

A

the urinary bladder

72
Q

during urination, the urine is expelled through a tube called the ……………, which empties to the outside of the body

A

urethra

73
Q

what structure regulates urination

A

sphincter muscles near the junction of the urethra and bladder

74
Q

each kidney has an outer ………… ……….. and an inner …….… …………

A

renal cortex

renal medulla

75
Q

what are the outer renal cortex and inner renal medulla supplied with blood by

A

the renal artery

76
Q

what are the outer renal cortex and inner renal medulla drained by

A

the renal vein

77
Q

what structures are packed inside the cortex and the medulla

A

tightly packed excretory tubules and associated blood vessels

78
Q

what do the excretory tubules do

A

carry and process a filtrate produced form the blood entering the kidney

79
Q

nearly all of the fluid in the filtrate is reabsorbed into the surrounding ………. ………. and exits the kidney in the renal vein

A

blood vessels

80
Q

the remaining fluid in the excretory tubules leaves as ..……..

A

urine

81
Q

the urine is collected in the inner …………. ………… and exits the kidney via the ureter

A

renal pelvis

82
Q

weaving back and forth across the renal cortex and medulla are the …………….

A

nephrons

83
Q

what structures are the functional units of the vertebrate kidneys

A

nephrons

84
Q

85% of the nephrons are ……………… nephrons which reach only a short distance into the medulla and the remainder are …………………. nephrons which extend deep into the medulla

A

cortical

juxtamedullary

85
Q

juxtamedullary nephrons are essential for production of urine that is hyper/hypoosmotic to body fluids, key for water conservation

A

hyperosmotic

86
Q

what does a nephron consist of

A

a single long tubule and a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus

87
Q

the blind end (a cavity open at one end) of the tubule forms a cup shaped swelling known as the ……………

A

Bowman’s capsule

88
Q

what does the Bowman’s capsule surround

A

the glomerulus

89
Q

When Is filtrate formed in the nephrons

A

when blood pressure forces fluid from the blood in the glomerulus into the lumen of Bowman’s capsule

90
Q

how is the filtrate processed

A

as it passes through the 3 major regions of the nephron: the proximal tubule, the loop of henle (a hairpin turn with a descending limb and an ascending limb) and the distal tubule

91
Q

what are the 3 major regions of the nephron

A

proximal tubule
loop of henle
distal tubule

92
Q

what receives the processed filtrate from the nephrons and transports it to the renal pelvis

A

collecting duct

93
Q

each nephron is supplied with blood by an …………. arteriole, an offshoot of the renal artery that branches and forms the capillaries of the glomerulus

A

afferent

94
Q

as the capillaries leave the glomerulus, they converge, forming the …………. arteriole

A

efferent

95
Q

branches of the efferent arteriole form the …………….. capillaries

A

peritubular

96
Q

peritubular capillaries surround the ……………… and …………….. tubules

A

proximal

distal

97
Q

other branches of the peritubular capillaries extend downward to the loop of henle and form the ……….. …….….

A

vasa recta

98
Q

what are the vasa recta

A

hairpin shaped capillaries that serve the renal medulla, including the loop of henle of juxtamedullary nephrons

99
Q

the glomerular capillaries and specialized cells of the bowman’s capsule retain blood cells and large molecules, such as plasma proteins, but are permeable to ……. and small …………

A

water

solutes

100
Q

the filtrate produced in the Bowman’s capsule contains what

A

salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, nitrogenous waste and other small molecules - the concentration of these molecules id the same in the initial filtrate as in the blood plasma because they all pass freely between the glomerular capillaries and the Bowman’s capsule

101
Q

reabsorption in the proximal tubule is critical for the recapture of what form the large volume of the initial filtrate

A

ions, water and valuable nutrients

102
Q

NaCl in the filtrate enters the cells of the transport epithelium by ………. ………… and cotransport mechanisms . it is then transferred to the interstitial fluid by ……….. …………..

A

facilitated diffusion

active transport

103
Q

the transport of positive charge out of the tubule drives the passive transport of what

A

chlorine ions

104
Q

as salt moves from the filtrate to the interstitial fluid, what follows, resulting in a considerable reduction in filtrate volume

A

water follows by osmosis

105
Q

the salt an water that exit the filtrate, diffuse from the interstitial fluid into what

A

the peritubular capillaries

106
Q

what other substances as well as salt and water are also transported from the filtrate to the interstitial fluid into the peritubular capillaries

A

glucose, amino acids, potassium ions etc.

107
Q

processing of the filtrate in the proximal tubule helps maintain a relatively constant ……… in the body fluids

A

pH

108
Q

how is pH controlled

A

cells of the transport epithelium secrete H ions into the lumen of the proximal tubule and also synthesise and secrete ammonia which acts as a buffer to trap H ions in the form of ammonium ions

109
Q

the more acidic the filtrate is, the more…………the cells produce and secrete and the animals urine usually contains some ammonia from this source (even though most nitrogenous waste is excreted as urea

A

ammonia

110
Q

the proximal tubules also absorb about 90% of what from the filtrate, contributing further to pH balance in body fluids

A

buffer bicarbonate

111
Q

as the filtrate passes through the proximal tubule, the materials to be excreted become ………….

A

concentrated

112
Q

what can be secreted into the filtrate from the surrounding tissues

A

drugs and toxins that have been processed in the liver can pass from the peritubular into the interstitial fluid then secreted by the transport epithelium into the lumen of the proximal tubule

113
Q

where does the filtrate g after leaving the proximal tubule

A

the loop of henle

114
Q

what happens to the filtrate in the loop of henle

A

filtrate volume is reduced via distinct stages of water and slat movement

115
Q

what is the first portion of the loop of henle called and what happens here

A

the descending limb
numerous water channels formed by aquaporin proteins make the transport epithelium freely permeable to water. In contrast there are almost no channels for salt and other small solutes, resulting in very low permeability for these substances

116
Q

for water to move out of the tubule by osmosis, what must the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid bathing the tubule be compared to the filtrate

A

hyperosmotic

117
Q

the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid increases/decreases progressively form the cortex through the medulla

A

increases - as a result the filtrate loses water and increases in solute concentration along its journey down the descending limb

118
Q

where is the osmolarity of the filtrate highest

A

at the elbow of the loop of henle

119
Q

once the filtrate reaches the tip of the loop where does it return to

A

the cortex via the ascending limb

120
Q

unlike the descending limb, the ascending limb has a transport epithelium that lacks what type of protein

A

water channels

121
Q

the epithelium membrane that faces the filtrate in the ascending limb is permeably to what

A

water

122
Q

what are the two specialised regions of the ascending limb

A

a thin segment near the loop tip and a thicker segment adjacent to the distal tubule

123
Q

as the filtrate ascends in the thin segment of the ascending limb what diffuses out of the permeable tubule and into the interstitial fluid

A

NaCl

124
Q

in the thicker segment of the ascending limb NaCl movement out of the tubule also occurs but in what way is the movement different from that in the thin segment

A

the NaCl is actively transported instead of passively diffusing

125
Q

what essentially happens to the filtrate in the ascending limb of the loop of henle

A

the filtrate loses salt but not water and so the filtrate becomes more dilute as it moves up to the cortex in the ascending limb

126
Q

what does the distal tubule play a key role in regulating

A

the concentration of potassium ions and NaCl in the body fluids
also pH regulation

127
Q

how does the distal tubule regulate potassium ion and NaCl concentration

A

it can vary the amount of potassium secreted into the filtrate as well as the amount of NaCl reabsorbed from the filtrate

128
Q

what is the role of the collecting duct

A

it processes the filtrate coming the distal tubule into urine which it carries to the renal pelvis

129
Q

in the collecting duct the filtrate becomes increasingly …….……., losing more water by osmosis to the hyper/hypoosmotic interstitial fluid

A

concentrated

hyperosmotic

130
Q

in the inner medulla the collecting duct becomes permeable to what

A

urea

131
Q

urine is hyper/hypoosmotic to the general body fluids

A

hyperosmotic

132
Q

what is the presence of water channels in the collecting duct epithelium controlled by

A

hormones that regulate blood pressure, volume and osmolarity

133
Q

filtrate passing from Bowman’s capsule to the proximal tubule has the same osmolarity as what

A

the blood

134
Q

what is reabsorbed from the filtrate as it flows through the proximal tubule in the renal cortex

A

salt and water - the filtrate volume decreases but the osmolarity remains the same

135
Q

as the filtrate flows from the cortex to the medulla via the ………….. …………… water leaves the tubule by osmosis

A

descending limb

136
Q

what does the reabsorption of water in the descending limb result in

A

solutes become more concentrated increasing the osmolarity of the filtrate

137
Q

where is diffusion of salt out of the loop of henle at its maximal

A

at the elbow of the loop

138
Q

the ascending limb of the loop of henle is permeable to ..………. but not ……………

A

salt - this helps maintain a high osmolarity in the interstitial fluid of the renal medulla
water

139
Q

what is the countercurrent system

A

the loop of henle and the surrounding capillaries act as a type of countercurrent system too generate the steep osmotic gradient between the medulla and the cortex

140
Q

the transport of NaCl in the upper thick part of the ascending limb is passive/active

A

active - this transport maintains a high salt concentration in the interior of the kidney enabling it to form concentrated urine

141
Q

countercurrent multiplier systems expend ………… to create a ………….. ………….

A

energy

concentration gradients

142
Q

the ascending and descending vessels of the vasa recta carry blood in ………… …………. through the kidneys osmolarity gradient

A

opposite directions

143
Q

the kidney has one of the highest/lowest metabolic rates or any organ

A

highest

144
Q

dues to active transport of NaCl out of the ascending limb the filtrate is hypo/hyperosmotic to body fluids by the time it reaches the distal tubule

A

hypoosmotic

145
Q

the collecting duct is permeable to …….. but not to …….…..

A

water

salt

146
Q

animals that excrete the most hyperosmotic urine have many ………………. nephrons that extend deep into the medulla

A

juxtamedullary

147
Q

aquatic animals have mostly cortical nephrons which results in production of dilute/concentrated urine

A

dilute

148
Q

in mammals, urine volume and osmolarity are adjusted depending on what

A

he animals water and salt balance and its rate of urea production

149
Q

describe the urine produced when an animal’s salt intake is high but its water availability is low

A

excretion of small volumes of hyperosmotic urine with minimal water loss (this is how the urea and salt are removed form the body)

150
Q

describe the urine produced when an animal’s salt intake is low but its water availability is high

A

excretion of large volumes of hypoosmotic urine (the excess water is eliminated with little salt loss)

151
Q

what manages the osmoregulatory function of the kidney

A

a combination of nervous and hormonal controls

152
Q

what is the key hormone of the kidneys

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

153
Q

where is ADH released from

A

the posterior pituitary

154
Q

What does ADH activate

A

it binds to active membrane receptors on the surface of the collecting ducts. the receptors then initiate a signal transduction cascade that directs insertion of aquaporin proteins into the membrane lining the collecting duct.

155
Q

more aquaporin channels result in more water recapture. what is the effect on the volume of urine

A

because the water is reabsorbed by the body the volume of urine decreases and we are left mainly with a concentrated mixture of solutes

156
Q

what is the response when osmolarity rises above the normal range

A

osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus trigger release of ADH from the posterior pituitary
water reabsorption in the collecting duct is increased
the result is increased concentration urine, decreased urine volume and decreased blood osmolarity back the set point.

157
Q

what is the response when osmolarity goes below the normal range

A

a negative feedback mechanism reduces the activity of the osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus and ADH secretion is reduced

158
Q

how does alcohol affect ADH release

A

it inhibits its release, leading to excessive urinary water loss and dehydration - causing a hangover

159
Q

what is the disorder called that results in no ADH production or inactivated ADH receptors (dues to mutations in genes that render them inactive)

A

diabetes insipidus - it causes severe dehydration and solute imbalance due to production of huge volumes of very dilute urine

160
Q

what is heterothermy

A

when some parts of the body are warmer than others

161
Q

what would be an example of behavioural temperature regulation in ectotherms

A

lizards basking in the sun

162
Q

A solution with few solutes in it will have lower/higher osmotic pressure than one with many solutes.

A

lower

163
Q

water will move from a low/high to a high/low osmotic pressure system

A

low

high

164
Q

what is ammonia secreted as in birds

A

uric acid/guano

165
Q

what is ammonia released as in fish

A

ammonia/ammonium

166
Q

what is ammonia released as in mammals

A

urea

167
Q

where are the kidneys

A

located against the back wall of the abdomen on either side of the body

168
Q

what is hydrostatic force

A

the force a liquid exerts on the walls of its container

169
Q

what are the steps in countercurrent heat exchange

A
  1. Arteries carrying warm blood are in close contact with veins carrying cooler blood.
  2. Heat from the artery is absorbed by the vein
  3. As the blood in the veins nears the centre it is almost as warm as the body core
170
Q

what is another name for ADH

A

vasopressin

171
Q

what is countercurrent multiplication

A

Countercurrent multiplication is the process of using energy to generate an osmotic gradient that enables reabsorption of water from tubular fluid, leading to production of concentrated urine. The ascending limb of the loop of Henle helps to maintain a gradient of salt concentration in the kidney interior.

A (17 decks)

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