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circulation Flashcards

1
Q

in multicellular animals are all cells engaged in metabolic activities

A

yes

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2
Q

every cell requires nutrients but which cells require oxygen

A

only those that carry out aerobic respiration

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3
Q

what are examples of cell waste products

A

nitrogenous compounds and carbon dioxide

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4
Q

why must every cell be bathed in aqueous solution

A

to allow for diffusion

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5
Q

what is diffusion proportional to

A

the square of distance

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6
Q

what is diffusion

A

the passive process of molecules moving from a high concentration to a low concentration over a semi permeable membrane

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7
Q

in terms o diffusion why do we need a complex transport system

A

diffusion alone is far too slow

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8
Q

diffusion plays an important role in movement of materials over what distance

A

<100um

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9
Q

do protistan, cnidarian and platyhelminthes require a complex transport system

A

no diffusion is sufficient because they are either small, thin or flat

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10
Q

What is the main purpose of the circulatory systems

A

to transport nutrients and oxygen to the tissues and remove waste products

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11
Q

what is a small artery called

A

arteriole

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12
Q

what is a small vein called

A

venule

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13
Q

do vertebrates have a closed or open circulatory system

A

closed

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14
Q

what does the circulatory system of vertebrates include

A

heart
arteries
veins
capillaries

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15
Q

do veins and arteries travel side by side

A

yes

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16
Q

how many chamber are in the heart

A

4 - 2 atria and 2 ventricles

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17
Q

which artery is the only one to carry deoxygenated blood

A

pulmonary artery

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18
Q

what direction do arteries travel

A

away from the heart

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19
Q

what direction do veins travel in

A

towards the heart

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20
Q

describe the circulatory system of a fish

A

single circulation
one atrium, one ventricle
blood reaches the tissues after passing over the gills to collect oxygen
blood has low pressure when flowing in the systemic part

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21
Q

what about the fish is in series

A

the gills and the systemic capillaries (tissues)

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22
Q

why is the fish circulatory system adequate

A

they have low metabolic rate as they are ectotherms

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23
Q

describe the circulatory system of amphibians

A

a partial double circulation
limited mixing
can redirect blood from the lungs to the skin - less blood goes to the lungs when the animal is not moving

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24
Q

as well as using the respiratory system how else do frogs respire

A

through their skin when they are in water

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25
Q

describe the circulatory system of reptiles

A

one ventricle partly divided by a septum
R-L shut occurs when submerged so blood by-passes the lungs
2 atria

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26
Q

in vertebrates which ventricle is thicker

A

the left ventricle

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27
Q

what are the pacemakers of the heart

A

the SA node primarily and the AV node is involved

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28
Q

How does the SA node set the pace of the heart

A

it sends out an electrical charge at a specific interval. this causes the right atrium to contract starting the whole string of events that gets blood pumping in waves through your body.

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29
Q

where do the SA and AV nodes sit in the heart

A

the right atrium

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30
Q

what is a pacemaker

A

it is a small device inserted into the chest of a recipient that mimics the electrical impulses of the SA and AV nodes

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31
Q

where is the pulmonary semilunar valve found

A

Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery

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32
Q

where is the aortic semilunar valve found

A

Between the left ventricle and the aorta

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33
Q

where is the tricuspid (atrioventricular) valve found

A

the right atrium

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34
Q

where is the bicuspid (atrioventricular) valve found

A

the left atrium

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35
Q

what process quickly follows the failure of the circulatory system

A

brain death - 3-4mins later

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36
Q

on average how many time does the heart beat per minute

A

70

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37
Q

how many times does an elephant heart beat per minute

A

25

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38
Q

how many times does a shrew heart beat per minute

A

25

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39
Q

what is the effect of mammal size on metabolic rate

A

smaller the mammal, greater the metabolic rate (due partly to their increased surface area to volume ratio)

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40
Q

the smaller the animal the …………. the heart rate

A

faster

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41
Q

life span ……………. with an decrease in heart rate

A

increases

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42
Q

what is the phrase that means the heart contracts spontaneously

A

myogenic property

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43
Q

what are the intercalated discs of the cardiac muscle

A

channels connecting cells

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44
Q

what occurs via the intercalated discs

A

cell-cell transmission

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45
Q

what is the rhythm of the cardiac muscle in the ventricles

A

slow

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46
Q

what is the rhythm of the cardiac muscle in the atria

A

faster than ventricles

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47
Q

what is the rhythm of the cardiac muscle in the SA (sino-atrial) node

A

the fastest - faster than atria and ventricles

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48
Q

describe what happens when the heart contracts

A

heartbeat is initiated by the SA node
it spreads over the atria
then it spreads over the ventricles

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49
Q

Excitation spreads slowly from the SA node over the atria to the AV node. why is this process slow

A

to ensure that atrial contraction is complete before ventricular contraction begins

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50
Q

cell-cell transmission is adequate for what size of heart

A

small

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51
Q

what is the order of excitation

A

SA Node > AV Node > Bundle of His > Purkinje Fibres

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52
Q

instead of cell-cell transmission what do larger hearts require

A

bundle of his and purkinje fibres which conduct rapidly to all parts of the ventricles including the apex (bottom tip of the heart in the left ventricle)

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53
Q

what is the bundle of his

A

a collection of heart muscle cells specialized for electrical conduction that transmits the electrical impulses from the AV node to the point of the apex of the fascicular branches via the bundle branches.

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54
Q

what leads from the bundle of his to the purkinje fibres

A

fascicular branches

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55
Q

what happens when excitation reaches the purkinje fibres

A

electrical conduction to the ventricles, causing the cardiac muscle of the ventricles to contract at a paced interval.

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56
Q

what results when purkinje fibres become damaged

A

ventricular fibrillation - use a defibrillator to restart.

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57
Q

what regulates the frequency and strength of the heartbeat

A

autonomic nervous system - the part of the nervous system that controls things automatically

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58
Q

what does the sympathetic nervous system do

A

excitation of the heart
increase in heart rate
increase in stroke volume (greater force of contraction

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59
Q

what does the parasympathetic nervous system do

A

inhibition of heart
decrease in heart rate
decrease in stroke volume (weaker force of contraction)

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60
Q

what is stroke volume

A

the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per beat

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61
Q

what is epinephrine

A

adrenaline

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62
Q

what does excretion of epinephrine result in

A

increases heart rate and stroke volume

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63
Q

what is the stroke volume at rest

A

70ml/beat

5litres/min

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64
Q

what is the heart rate at rest

A

70beats/min

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65
Q

what is the heart rate during strenuous exercise

A

up to 180bpm

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66
Q

what is the stroke volume during strenuous exercise

A

25 litres/min

up to 35 litres/ min in a athlete

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67
Q

what happens to blood flow during exercise

A

cardiac output blood flow increases
brain blood flow is constant
skeletal muscle blood flow is increased
alimentary system blood flow is decreased

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68
Q

why shouldn’t you exercise straight after a meal

A

the blood flow of the alimentary system is decreased as the blood is diverted to the skeletal muscles and cardiac output so food won’t be digested as efficiently

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69
Q

what is systole

A

when the ventricle (left in example but can be either) contracts, blood is forced under high pressure into the aorta and blood surges forward in all arteries. the pressure waves stretch the walls of the arteries. this is a pulse

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70
Q

what is diastole

A

when the ventricle relaxes, the pressure falls and the elastic of the stretched arteries recoils, maintaining some pressure in the blood

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71
Q

what determines blood pressure

A

cardiac output and peripheral resistance met by the blood as it passes from the arteries into the arterioles and capillaries.

72
Q

what is peripheral resistance

A

resistance to flow determined by the diameter of the tube – the smaller the diameter the greater the resistance

73
Q

what is the cardiac cycle in terms of systole and diastole

A

atrial and ventricular diastole
atrial systole, ventricular diastole
ventricular systole, atrial diastole

74
Q

what is the first sound of the heart beat

A

LUB

75
Q

what is the second sound of the heart beat

A

DUB

76
Q

which valves are open during atrial and ventricular diastole

A

atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and bicuspid (mitral) valves)

77
Q

which valves are closed during atrial and ventricular diastole

A

semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonary valves)

78
Q

what is the pulse pressure calculation

A

systolic-diastolic pressure difference

79
Q

is there a pulse in veins

A

no

80
Q

what are the 4 main functions of arteries

A
  1. To transport blood from the heart to the capillaries
  2. To act as pressure reservoir for forcing blood into small diameter capillaries – their thick walls withstand pressure
  3. To dampen oscillations in pressure and flow generated in the heart, so producing a more even flow of blood to the capillaries.
  4. The arterioles control flow to the capillary beds
81
Q

what is vasoconstriction

A

smooth muscle in the arteriole wall contracts to decrease blood flow to capillary bed

82
Q

what is vasodilation

A

smooth muscle in the arteriole wall relaxes to increase blood flow to capillary bed

83
Q

what is vascular tone

A

the degree of constriction experienced by a blood vessel relative to its fully dilated state.

84
Q

what controls the flow of blood between arterioles and venules

A

precapillary sphincters - rings of smooth muscle

85
Q

what ultimately controls blood flow to the capillary beds

A

the sympathetic nervous system, hormones and local factors

86
Q

is blood flow constant

A

yes

87
Q

which organ have their capillaries filled to capacity

A

heart, brain, kidneys and liver

88
Q

where is blood diverted to when body temperature increases

A

the skin - vasodilation occurs

89
Q

what are the main functions of veins

A
  1. To transport blood from capillaries back to the heart

2. To act as a storage reservoir for blood (60% of blood volume is in veins).

90
Q

blood pressure is very low in the veins, so how is blood returned to the heart?

A

They return blood to the heart by the mechanism of having valves (blood may only flow in 1D) and skeletal muscular activity.

91
Q

what is thrombophlebitis

A

the pooling of blood, leading to blood clot formation in bedridden patients - why people are encouraged to walk soon after operation

92
Q

what increases the likelihood deep vein thrombosis (blood clot in the leg)

A

Immobility for long periods of time e.g. long flight

93
Q

what is thrombosis

A

formation of a blood clot or thrombus in a blood vessel.

94
Q

where can a blood clot block a vessel

A

in the vessel in which it forms or it may become dislodged and be carried to some other location in the circulatory system, in which case it is called an embolus. can be very dangerous e.g. in the lung

95
Q

what is a stroke

A

When an embolus or thrombus blocks a blood vessel in the brain

96
Q

what are symptoms of a stroke

A

depending on which part of the brain has been damaged (due to lack of blood supply) – e.g. paralysis, speech impairment, emotional disturbance.

97
Q

where do capillaries run from

A

arterioles to venules

98
Q

what are endothelial cells

A

Endothelial cells are the thin layer of cells that line the interior surface of all blood vessels. these cells line the entire circulatory system

99
Q

what are the 2 ways that materials can move in and out of capillaries

A

passively and actively

100
Q

how do materials move in/out capillaries passively

A

through capillary endothelial cell wall

e.g. O2, CO2

101
Q

How do materials move in/out capillaries actively

A 
by bulk flow through the intercellular spaces between the endothelial cells. happens in most capillaries (not the brain)
active transport (especially in brain) there are tight junctions in the brain that close the intercellular spaces forming a blood brain barrier
102
Q

how do nutrients get from capillaries to cell tissues

A

the nutrients diffuse into the interstitial fluid around the cells

103
Q

define cardiac output

A

the volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute

104
Q

define heart rate

A

number of beats per minute

105
Q

define stroke volume

A

the volume of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction

106
Q

what creates the lub sound

A

recoil of blood against the closed AV valves

107
Q

what creates the dub sound

A

the closing of the semilunar valves

108
Q

what happens when impulses are released from the SA node

A

both atria contract in unison
the impulse reaches the AV node
signals from the AV node a re conducted to the heart apex and throughout the ventricular walls by bundle of his branches and purkinje fibres

109
Q

which two systems regulate the pacemaker function of the SA node

A

the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

110
Q

which nervous system speeds up the pacemaker when you walk

A

sympathetic

111
Q

which nervous system slows down the pacemaker when you sit down

A

parasympathetic

112
Q

which gland secretes epinephrine that induces fight or flight (speeds up the pacemaker)

A

adrenal glands

113
Q

what else other than the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system affects the pacemaker

A

body temperature - increase in temperature increases heart rate

114
Q

what is a heart murmur

A

when blood squirts back through a defective valve

115
Q

what is a an endothelium

A

single layer of flattened epithelial cells

116
Q

what part of the blood vessel is lined with an endothelium

A

the central lumen (cavity)

117
Q

how does endothelium affect resistance

A

it decreases the resistance

118
Q

what surrounds the endothelium in a capillary

A

basal lamina

119
Q

what layers surround the endothelium of arteries and veins

A

smooth muscle and connective tissue (elastin allow stretch and collagen allows strength)

120
Q

why can arteries accommodate blood pumped at high pressure

A

because they have thick walls

121
Q

what controls modulation of blood flow by constriction or dilation

A

signals from the nervous system and circulating hormones act on the smooth muscle of the vessels

122
Q

do veins contain valves

A

yes

123
Q

do arteries contain valves

A

no

124
Q

what happens to the velocity of blood flow when blood flows between the arteries and arterioles

A

decreases

125
Q

what is the connection between total cross sectional area and velocity of blood flow

A

increase in cross sectional area = decrease in blood flow velocity

126
Q

Blood, like all fluids flows from areas of …………….pressure to areas of ………..pressure

A

higher to lower

127
Q

contraction of a …………… generates blood pressure

A

ventricle

128
Q

when is arterial blood pressure highest

A

when the heart contracts during ventricular systole

129
Q

what is the blood pressure called when the heart contracts

A

systolic pressure

130
Q

what is the blood pressure called during diastole

A

diastolic pressure

131
Q

why is blood always under pressure

A

so that their is a continuous flow

132
Q

how is a continuous flow of blood maintained

A

during diastole, before enough blood has flowed into the arterioles to completely relieve pressure in the arteries, the heart contracts again (systole)

133
Q

Smooth muscles of the arteriole wall contracts. vasoconstriction …………….. blood pressure upstream in the arteries

A

increase

134
Q

smooth muscles of the arteriole walls relax. vasodilation ………………. blood pressure in the arteries

A

decrease

135
Q

how is blood pressure measured

A

systole pressure/diastole pressure (mm Hg)

136
Q

what is osmotic pressure

A

the pressure produced by the difference in solute concentration across a membrane

137
Q

the difference in osmotic pressure between the blood and the interstitial fluid ………….. fluid movement out of the capillaries

A

opposes

138
Q

generally, blood pressure is …………. than opposing forces leading to net loss of fluid from the capillaries

A

greater

139
Q

how is the fluid lost from the capillaries brought back to the blood

A

via the lymphatic system

140
Q

what is the fluid recovered to the lymphatic system called

A

lymph

141
Q

do lymph vessels have valves

A

yes

142
Q

disruption in the movement of lymph can result in fluid accumulation in affected tissues. what is this called

A

edema

143
Q

edema is responsible for what in starving children

A

bloated bellies (kwashiorkor)

144
Q

Pregnant women get swollen ankles because their …….…….…. pressures become higher than the norm.

A

osmotic

145
Q

by what method of transport does gas exchange occur

A

by diffusion

146
Q

what factors does rate of transfer depend upon

A

area
distance
concentration difference

147
Q

area should be as large/small as possible

diffusion distance should be as small/large as possible

A

large

small

148
Q

describe the anatomy of the lungs

A

trachea, bronchus, bronchioles, alveoli

149
Q

what hormone secreted by the kidneys stimulates generation of erythrocytes

A

erythropoietin

150
Q

what is coagulation

A

liquid blood going to solid blood

151
Q

the enzyme thrombin converts what to what

A

fibrinogen to fibrin - this forms a clot

152
Q

what is a heart attack caused by

A

a blockage in one of the coronary arteries

153
Q

what is partial pressure

A

the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases

154
Q

in what direction does a gas move

A

from a high partial pressure to a lower partial pressure

155
Q

what makes an alveoli

A

capillary endothelium
interstitial space
alveolar epithelium

156
Q

what about alveoli maximises gas exchange

A

moist walls
thin walls
large surface area

157
Q

what are the walls lined with

A

moist epithelium cells

158
Q

what are the lungs

A

localised respiratory organs

159
Q

run through the process of breathing

A

inhale through nostrils
air goes to pharynx
trachea opens and air passes through into bronchi then bronchioles then alveolidissol

160
Q

what lines the epithelium that line the major branches in the lung tree

A

cilia

161
Q

what do cilia do in the lungs

A

they brush up mucous into the pharynx where it is swallowed into the oesophagus

162
Q

where does gas exchange in mammals occur

A

alveoili

163
Q

how is oxygen taken up

A

oxygen in the air entering the alveoili dissolves in the moist film lining their inner surfaces and rapidly diffuses across the epithelium into a web of capillaries that surrounds each alveoli

164
Q

how is carbon dioxide removed from the capillaries

A

net diffusion of carbon dioxide occurs from the capillaries across the epithelium of the alveoli and into the air space

165
Q

As the oxygen passes through the airways it ………….pressure.

A

loses

166
Q

mammals employ negative/positive pressure breathing

A

negative - it means pulling rather than pushing air into the lungs

167
Q

air pressure is lowered by muscle contraction which expands the thoracic cavity, causing what

A

influx of air into the lungs

168
Q

inhalation
The diaphragm …………..and is pulled down
The rib cage expands and the rib muscles contract

A

contracts

169
Q

exhalation
rib cage gets ……………
rib muscles ………..
elasticity of lungs drives air out of them

A

smaller

relax

170
Q

what is tidal volume

A

volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath

171
Q

what is vital capacity

A

tidal volume during maximal inhalation and exhalation

172
Q

what is residual volume

A

air that remains after a forced exhalation

173
Q

because the lungs of mammals don’t completely empty with each breath fresh and oxygen depleted residual air mix slightly. what results

A

concentration of oxygen in alveoili is always less than in the atmosphere

174
Q

how is CO2 transported

A

5% as dissolved CO2
5% attached to haemoglobin and other blood proteins
90% as bicarbonate ions

175
Q

describe cooperativity of haemoglobin

A

when one oxygen binds affinity of other sites increases

when one oxygen is released affinity of other sites decreased

176
Q

where is the foramen Ovale located (allows blood to bypass the lungs)

A

between the right and left atrium

177
Q

what coats the lining of the alveoli

A

pulmonary surfactant

A (17 decks)

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