Contract Practice Flashcards

1
Q

What are the different types of contract typically used in the construction industry?

A
  • JCT (Joint Contracts Tribunal)
  • NEC (New Engineering Contract)
  • FIDIC (International Federation of Consulting Engineers)
  • ACA (Association of Consultant Architects)
  • ICE (Institution of Civil Engineers)
  • ECC (Engineering and Construction Contract)
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2
Q

What are lump sum contracts?

A

Where the contract sum is determined before construction work is started.

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3
Q

What are measurement contracts?

A

Where the contract sum is not finalised until after completion but is assessed on remeasurement to a previously agreed basis.

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4
Q

What are cost reimbursement contracts?

A

Where the sum is arrived at on the basis of prime (actual) costs of labour, plant and materials, to which there is added an amount to cover overheads and profit.

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5
Q

What matters may influence the selection of a particular procurement method and type of contract?

A
  • The nature of the project – new-build, refurbishment, extension, reinstatement/repair etc.
  • The scope of works – anything unusual about the size, complexity or location. Basic or skilled trades required. Specialist design content required etc.
  • Measure of control by the client – client control over design, materials and workmanship, selection of sub-contractors etc.
  • Accountability – single point responsibility, intention to appoint project manager.
  • Appointment of a contractor – Negotiation or competitive tender process? Is the contractor to undertake work only or provide designs?
  • Certainty of final cost – is a lump sum preferred? Will fluctuations apply? Do the circumstances dictate remeasurement? Are tenders to be on a competitive basis?
  • Start and completion times – is there time to produce designs prior to tender? Is a quick start required?
  • Restrictions – site restriction i.e. working hours, noise and access restrictions? Is the building occupied? Is the project to be phased?
  • Changes during construction – likelihood of design changes, can the contract easily accommodate variations? To what extent may approximate quantities or provisional sums be required?
  • Assessment of risks – what are the priorities with regard to apportioning risk of cost, time, and quality or performance? Is the contract to reduce the client risk as much as possible?
  • Building relationships with the supply chain - is a long term relationship with a supplier or the supply chain required so as to provide continuous improvement?
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6
Q

What are the different procurement methods used for construction projects?

A
  • Traditional Procurement (lump sum) – Full documentation is provided by the employer prior to tendering of the works. The employer provides the design and specifications and the contractor prices against and builds in accordance with the designs/specifications.
  • Design and Build Procurement (lump sum) – The contractor is responsible for the design and construction. The employer may provide some outline designs and the contractor completes the designs, with the employer’s design team novated.
  • Management Procurement – Client is responsible for the design. Contractor manages various works packages.
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7
Q

What are the different parts of JCT contracts?

A
  • Agreement – Details of Employer and Contractor
  • Recitals – Description of works, site address, Contractor’s Design Portion, and details of drawings/specifications and other contract docs
  • Articles – Identifies the primary obligations of the parties under a contract. Names the CA, QS, PD, PC and also deals with adjudication, arbitration, litigation.
  • Contract Particulars – Contains the project specific information referred to in the recitals, articles and conditions.
  • Attestation – Refers to the execution of the contract (underhand or as a deed).
  • Conditions
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8
Q

What is the difference between a Relevant Event and a Relevant Matter?

A
  • Relevant Event – an event which causes a delay to the completion date - entitles a contractor to an extension of time.
  • Relevant Matter – a matter which the client is responsible for which materially affects the progress of the works - entitles a contractor to loss and expense.
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9
Q

Can you outline the relevant events?

A

There are 13 relevant events set out in JCT forms including:
* Variations.

  • Instructions.
  • Execution of an approx. quantity that is not a reasonably accurate forecast.
  • Deferment of possession of the site.
  • Suspension by the contractor for non-payment.
  • The carrying out of work by statutory authorities.
  • Impediment, prevention or default by the employer.
  • Loss or damages occasioned by the Specified Perils.
  • Exceptionally adverse weather conditions.
  • Strike or lock out.
  • Civil commotion or terrorism.
  • The exercise of any statutory power after the base date by the UK gov.
  • Force majeure.
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10
Q

Can you provide some examples of Relevant Matters?

A
  • Failure to give the contractor possession of the site.
  • Failure to give the contractor access to and from the site.
  • Delays in receiving instructions.
  • Opening up works or testing works that then prove to have been carried out in accordance with the contract.
  • Discrepancies in the contract documents.
  • Disruption caused by works being carried out by the client.
  • Failure by the client to supply goods or materials.
  • Instructions relating to variations and expenditure of provisional sums.
  • Inaccurate forecasting of works described by approximate quantities.
  • Issues relating to CDM.
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11
Q

What are some of the adjustments typically made to JCT contracts?

A
  • Payment timescales – adjusted from 21 days to 28 (21 days from due date).
  • Defects rectification period.
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12
Q

Can you outline the changes and features implemented within the upcoming 2024 suite of JCT contracts?

A
  • Modernising and streamlining - Including adoption of gender-neutral language, and increased flexibility around the use of electronic notices.
  • Extensions of Time - New relevant events will be introduced to include epidemics and the exercise of ‘statutory powers’. The time available to the Employer to assess interim extensions of time will be reduced from 12 weeks to 8 weeks from receipt of the Contractor’s Particulars.
  • Loss and Expense - New relevant events and relevant matters will be introduced including new provisions dealing with unexploded ordnance, contaminated materials and asbestos.
  • Liquidated Damages - Where works are not complete at termination, LADs can be levied up to termination and subsequently general damages following the Supreme Court’s decision on Triple Point Technology Inc -v- PTT Public Company Ltd.
  • Payment due date after termination - Addition of a payment due date after termination which will reduce uncertainty.
  • Disputes - A new requirement for parties to notify potential disputes to senior executives to seek a negotiated settlement but this will not cut across either party’s right to refer a dispute to adjudication at any time. In place of a shortlist, parties can now choose their own adjudication nominating body.
  • Fluctuation - Incorporation of the new JCT Fluctuations Hub launched in 2023, a resource to help the construction sector respond to growing economic uncertainty and volatility in the market and how to correctly apply the options available under the JCT suite. The fluctuation provisions will also be moved to an online document.
  • Legislative changes - Major updates in relation to the Building Safety Act; Termination accounting and payment provisions reflecting the Construction Act; and new insolvency grounds reflecting the Corporate Insolvency and Governance Act 2020.
  • Future Proofing - Reflecting the objectives of the Construction Playbook, and incorporating existing optional supplemental provisions relating to Collaborative Working, and Sustainable Development and Environmental Considerations.
  • New form of contract - The introduction of a new contract family, JCT Target Cost Contract (TCC), comprising main contract, sub-contract, and guide, which will likely be an alternative to the NEC Option C ECC form of contract.
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13
Q

What are the key differences between JCT Minor Works, Intermediate and D&B Contracts?

A
  • Minor works only has 7 sections of conditions instead of 9.
  • Variations are included within the Control of the Works section and there is no ‘assignment and collateral warranties provision’.
  • There is no mention of the QS in minor works and D&B however there is in the Intermediate Form.
  • In Minor Works there is no provision for named sub-contractors, no provision for bonds and collateral warranties and no advance payment provision.
  • Minor works also has no provision for sectional completion.
  • In Minor Works there are no relevant events listed for extension of time, instead it is referred to as ‘anything outside the contractor’s control’.
  • The standard rectification period is 3 months for Minor Works and 6 months for D&B and Intermediate.
  • The standard retention is 5% for Minor Works and Intermediate and 3% for D&B and SBC.
  • D&B is administered by an Employer’s Agent rather than a Contract Administrator.
  • In Minor Works and Intermediate, the Contractor may be responsible for completing discrete part of the design (CDP) whereas in D&B, he is responsible for completing the overall design.
  • In D&B, the EA may request a quotation prior to instructing a change.
  • There is no fluctuation mechanism for labour and materials costs in Minor Works and Intermediate Forms.
  • Payments are made at regular intervals in Minor Works and Intermediate Forms whereas D&B gives the option of stage payments.
  • In Minor Works, there is no option for the employer to take out a joint name all risk policy, only options A and C.
  • There is no provision for third party rights in Minor Works or Intermediate Forms.
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14
Q

What would you consider when selecting what type of contract to use?

A
  • Complexity of the project.
  • Any design input required from contractor.
  • Method of procurement (traditional / D&B).
  • Requirement for phasing of the works (sectional completion).
  • Use of retention bonds.
  • Third party rights (collateral warranties etc.).
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15
Q

When would you use JCT Minor Works?

A
  • Projects that are short in duration, small and simple.
  • Guidance is for a value up to £150,000.
  • It is a short, easy to follow contract.
  • It is a lump sum form; design should be completed prior to execution.
  • Not as comprehensive as others – limited claims provisions, no fluctuations.
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16
Q

When would you use JCT Intermediate Contract?

A
  • Recommended for project that do not exceed one year’s duration or up to £750,000.
  • For projects that are simple in content, require only basic skills and trades and where services are not complex and where the works are already designed.
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17
Q

When would you use JCT DB?

A
  • When the contractor is responsible for design and construction.
  • Similar in complexity to the standard building contracts.
  • The contactor’s proposals form the basis of the contract.
  • There is no mention of an architect or QS.
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18
Q

When would you use JCT Major Project?

A
  • Projects that are significant in both size and quantity.
  • Generally for clients that have their own in-house contractual procedures.
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19
Q

What are the advantages of using standard forms of contract?

A
  • Written by legal experts.
  • Case law is built up over time and provides a good source of knowledge and clarity of the terms.
  • Widely used and understood within the construction industry.
  • Rights and obligations of each party are clearly set out to the required level of detail.
  • Saves time in drafting a new bespoke contract for every job.
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20
Q

What would you find in contract documents?

A
  • Contract.
  • Preliminaries.
  • Preambles.
  • Design information (SoW, drawings, specification).
  • Pre-construction information.
  • Information release schedule.
  • Bills of quantities.
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21
Q

Can you explain what preambles are?

A
  • Preambles are there to provide an explanation of how a document is to be used in order to help with its interpretation.
  • describe the client’s expectations about the standard and quality of the work instructed.

Preambles do not form part of the cost of the project and may include:-

o A description of the parties to the contract.

o A description of the competence of the parties.

o A background of the project.

o Summaries of any negotiations that have taken place.

o The tendering procedure that has been adopted.

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22
Q

What are preliminaries?

A
  • Preliminaries provide a description of a project that allows a contractor to assess costs.
  • Their purpose is to describe the works as a whole and to specify general conditions and requirements for their execution.
  • They include the following:-

o The site (description, access and parking).

o The works.

o Contract conditions (rectification, payments, insurance and collateral warranties).

o Management of the works (working hours and supervision requirements).

o Security, health and safety.

o Site setup and welfare requirements.

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23
Q

Can you please explain what a collateral warranty is and the type that was used for IPL Plastics, Rotherham?

A
  • Collateral warranties are used as a supporting document to a primary contract where an agreement needs to be put in place with a third party outside of the primary contract.
  • CW’s provide a contractual link to third parties who are not named within the contract (the landlord in the case of IPL).
  • Contractor Collateral Warranty for a Funder (CWa/F).
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24
Q

What is the legislation relevant to collateral warranties / third party rights?

A

The Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 enables third party rights to be created by a contract. This is seen by some to offer an alternative to collateral warranties.

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25
Q

Who produced the collateral warranty for IPL?

A

Landlord and tenant’s solicitors.

26
Q

What is a ‘step in’ right in the context of collateral warranties?

A

They allow a third party, such as a funder, to step in to ensure the project is completed if the client becomes insolvent.

27
Q

What is the difference between a collateral warranty and third party rights?

A
  • Third party rights do not require anything to be signed by the warrantor.
  • A physical, signed document (warranty) is provided in the context of collateral warranties.
  • Third Party Rights provide a person who is not a party to a contract to enforce the benefits of terms of that contract.
  • Collateral Warranties create a contractual relationship between parties where there would otherwise not have been any.
  • In one sense, there is no difference in practice between collateral warranties and third party rights on a construction project; either give effective construction security to third parties.
  • The difference is that, whereas a warranty involves a signed contract document, third party rights are granted by means of a statute (TPR Act).

Collateral warranties remain popular, in part because:

  • They are familiar - Historically, construction lawyers are more familiar with collateral warranties. Once a collateral warranty is formally entered into, it is a contract like any other. Even though they have been available for over ten years, third party rights are a more recent creation of statute.
  • It may be easier to grant step-in rights - If a borrower (such as a developer) becomes insolvent, a funder would want to be able to step in to its shoes to complete and sell the project for the best price. Some argue it is easier to effect that in a collateral warranty.
  • However, those who prefer third party rights feel it is just as straightforward to grant step-in rights using third party rights.
  • Third party rights may be used if a lot of warranties are required; CWs involves a lot of administration and cost.
28
Q

Why are third parties unable to enforce the terms of a contract without provision for collateral warranties / third party rights?

A

Privity of contract - Without being expressly agreed, third parties are unable to enforce a term of contract they are not named within.

29
Q

Why might third party rights be used instead of collateral warranties?

A

If a lot of warranties are required, it would involve a lot of administration and cost – easier for third party rights.

30
Q

What are the common clauses / terms in collateral warranties?

A
  • The obligations of the collateral warranties should mirror that of the main agreement, therefore if a party is in breach of the main agreement they would also be in breach of the warranty.
  1. Limitation of liability
  2. Reasonable skill and care v fitness for purpose
  3. Requirements for PI insurance
  4. Assignment rights
  5. Novation rights
31
Q

Can you name some standard forms of collateral warranty that may be used?

A
  • CWa/F – JCT standard form of collateral warranty for a funder.
  • CWa/P&T – JCT standard form of collateral warranty for a future purchaser or tenant.
32
Q

Who might want a collateral warranty?

A
  • Any third party with a financial investment in a project but not party to the main contract.
  • Funding institutions, future tenants or purchasers may use collateral warranties.
  • The employer may want a collateral warranty with key subcontractors or suppliers, as if the main contractor were to go into liquidation, they would have no contractual link with them for redress in case of defective workmanship.
33
Q

Who decided upon the insurance provisions for IPL?

A
  • Landlord and tenant’s solicitors.
34
Q

You mentioned that an all risks insurance policy was used for IPL Plastics. Can you explain what an all risks policy is?

A
  • Covers all risks associated with the works, including any damage to buildings, items of machinery or materials within the buildings whilst undertaking the works.
  • The contractor was to insure the works on a joint names basis, including the contractor, employer (tenant) and landlord.
35
Q

What were some of the provisions included within the insurance policy at IPL?

A
  • Cover for hot works.
  • Cover for any damage to the employer’s plant and manufacturing equipment within the warehouses.
36
Q

What is the significance of a joint names insurance policy?

A
  • The insured parties are unable to make a claim against each other for an insured loss (no subrogation rights).
  • The policy cannot be cancelled without both parties being made aware.
37
Q

What is subrogation and how is this affected by joint names insurance policies?

A
  • A legal technique where the insurer steps into the shoes of the insured in order to take the benefit of any legal rights or remedies they may have against a third party responsible for the loss.
  • The insurer has no rights of subrogation, meaning that they cannot recover amounts paid to one of the insured by pursuing the other.
38
Q

What is a letter of intent and when might one be used?

A
  • A letter of intent (LOI) is a document expressing an intention to enter into a contract at a future date but creates no contractual relationship until that future contract has been entered into. A letter of intent is not an ‘agreement to agree’.
  • A LOI can be used to ensure a quick start promptly before a contract is finalised and signed.
39
Q

Under what circumstances should a LOI be used?

A

When the following are established/agreed:

  • Scope of works and contract sum (or there is a clear mechanism in place for them to be agreed).
  • Contract terms and conditions.
  • Contract dates (commencement and completion).

and

  • When there is good reason to commence works in advance of the contract documents being finalised/signed.
40
Q

If a client asked you to issue a letter of intent to a contractor, would you?

A

I would request that the client’s solicitor produced and issued the letter of intent.

41
Q

What is a performance bond and when might one be used?

A
  • Most common types are ‘default bonds’, issued by a bondsman on behalf of a contractor.
  • They are conditional on the proper performance of the building contract by the contractor.
  • If the contractor does not perform their obligations under a contract, the bondsman agrees to pay the employer their losses up to a stated maximum sum (often a percentage of the initial contract sum – typically circa 10%).
  • May be considered when there is concern over a contractor’s credit rating.
42
Q

What is an escrow account?

A
  • An account opened by the employer into which monies and deposited and can be released to the contractor under certain circumstances e.g. on the issue of payment certificates.
  • Used as a safeguard for payments under the contract.
43
Q

What is a project bank account?

A
  • An account opened by both the employer and contractor into which the employer makes payments into. Payments will be released directly to relevant members of the supply chain in accordance with the contract.
  • Intended to speed up payments, reducing the risk of cash flow problems in the supply chain.
  • The supply chain will have access to the monies if the contractor becomes insolvent.
  • More likely to be used in public sector projects.
44
Q

How can a surveyor acting as CA protect themselves from personal liability?

A

The firm rather than the surveyor should be appointed and named within the contract.

45
Q

What are the four key elements required to make a binding contract?

A

Offer, acceptance, consideration, and an intent to create legal relations.

46
Q

What should be included in a letter of intent?

A
  • The parties – the names and titles of the parties as stated within the contract documents
  • The works – described in clear and concise terms
  • The price (if agreed) – clearly stating the currency and whether this price is to be considered a maximum expenditure limit until the formal execution of the contract
  • A statement of the intention of the parties to enter into and be bound by a formal contract
  • The dates for possession and completion and whether there is any sectional completion envisaged or required within the contract
  • Entitlements of both parties upon the revocation, frustration or repudiation of the contract
  • Procedure for calculating interim payments if work proceeds
  • Procedure for calculating and issuing final payment should the work not proceed or if a formal contract is not executed between the parties
  • Insurances that are to be provided
  • The maximum expenditure limit allowed under the letter of intent
  • Termination procedure
  • Confirmation that the contract created by the letter of intent will terminate upon execution of the principle contract(s)
  • Dispute resolution procedure.
47
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using letters of intent?

A
  • They allow for the contractor to be formally instructed prior to the contract being finalised.
  • They can be risky as there may
48
Q

What happens if a letter of intent is silent on time, cost or quality?

A

Time - If there is no time for completion specified within the letter of intent, then a reasonable time for completion will be implied.

Cost - If the letter of intent does not provide for a method of payment, the contractor will be entitled to payment of a reasonable sum that reflects the value of the work carried out or the advantage derived therefrom. This is known as payment on a quantum meruit basis

Quality - If the standard of workmanship and quality to be applied to the works is not stated within the letter of intent then, notwithstanding any statutory obligations, the requisite standard will be that the contractor must carry out the work with proper skill and care using materials that are reasonably fit for purpose and of merchantable quality.

49
Q

What will construction contracts insurance typically cover?

A
  • The works.
  • On-site materials or goods.
  • Off-site materials or goods.
  • Existing structures and their contents.
50
Q

On what basis might construction insurance be taken out on?

A
  • All risks
  • Specified perils

Specified perils tend to be significant events that would cause very significant damage, such as fire, explosions, earthquakes, flooding and so on. All-risks insurance will tend to cover a broader range of risks, albeit it may not cover every possible risk.

51
Q

What is employers liability insurance?

A
  • Protects a party against liability for injury or disease to its employees arising out of their employment.
  • A minimum of £5m should be held and is required by statute.
52
Q

What is public liability insurance?

A
  • Covers death or injury to third parties, as well as damage to property belonging to third parties.
  • Does not cover damage to the works or site materials.
  • Held on an ‘events occurring’ basis.
  • Typical level of cover is between £5m-£10m.
53
Q

What is non-negligent insurance (6.5.1 insurance)

A
  • Insures the employer for any loss they may incur due to non-negligent damage.
  • Generally only necessary for excavations within close proximity to a property or extension work.
  • Also known as party wall insurance.
54
Q

What would normally be included and excluded within a contractors all risk (CAR) insurance policy?

A
  • The policy would typically cover loss or damage to the works and materials during constructions.
  • A CAR policy would not provide cover for existing structures.
55
Q

What will an existing structures joint names insurance policy cover?

A

The cost of repairs arising from damage to existing structures from specified perils, such as fire, flood, storms etc.

56
Q

What can be done to ensure insurance can be put in place for existing structures if an employer cannot obtain a joint names policy?

A
  • The contract could be amended to include a “C.1 Replacement Schedule”.
  • This would allow the parties to agree an alternative arranged for insurance of the works and existing structures.
57
Q

What parties may typically provide a collateral warranty?

A
  • Contractors
  • Sub-contractors
  • Professional consultants (e.g. architects and designers)
58
Q

What parties would typically request a collateral warranty?

A
  • Employers (novated parties or those not directly employed)
  • Funders
  • Purchasers or tenants of a newly built property
  • Other interested parties, such as freeholders and management companies.
59
Q

What obligation may be included within the context of a collateral warranty if a warrantor has design liabilities?

A
  • The maintenance of professional indemnity insurance up to an agreed level and for a specific period
  • The warrantor may also need to provide evidence that the PII policy is in place.
60
Q

What is a net contribution clause within a collateral warranty?

A

This limits the extent of liability proportionately between the parties who contributed to a project and any failings within the works undertaken.