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MCAT Psychology > Concept 7A > Flashcards

Concept 7A Flashcards

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1
Q

Neurotransmitters involved in behavior

A

1) Acetylcholine
2) Catecholamines
3) Serotonin
4) GABA, glycine, glutamate
5) Peptide neurotransmitters

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2
Q

Acetylcholine: found in what nervous system, its roles

A

In PNS: transmit nerve impulses to muscles.
In CNS: linked to attention & arousal.
Effect on behavior: increased arousal, enhanced cognition

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3
Q

Catecholamine: types, what they’re involved in

A
  1. Epinephrine & norepinephrine: control wakefulness
    - NE more at local level, epinephrine farther
  2. Dopamine: movement & posture
    - High levels in basal ganglia
    - Imbalanced in Schizophrenia
    - Loss of dopaminergic neuron associated w/ Parkinson’s
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4
Q

Serotonin: type, roles

A

Type: monoamine/biogenic amine neurotransmitter
Roles: regulate mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming

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5
Q

GABA, glycine, glutamate

A

GABA: produces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials, stabilizing neural activity
Glycine: increase chloride influx to neuron
Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter, opposite of glycine

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6
Q

Peptide Neurotransmitters types & roles

A
  1. Neuromoudulators (neuropeptides): more complicated chain of events in postsynaptic cell; slow/longer effects
  2. Endorphins / enkephalins: natural painkiller by the body
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7
Q

Methods for Studying the Brain

A

1) CT imaging
2) PET scan
3) MRI: magnetic field, tells about H atom
4) fMRI: like MRI but tells which structures are active
5) EEG (Electroencephalography)
6) Cortical maps: electrically stimulating and recording brain activity
7) rCBF: regional blood flow

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8
Q

Endocrine system on behavior

A

(other than knowing components of endocrine system on Kaplan),

  1. Behavior coordinated response to environment
  2. Hormones effect how we respond to attitude/personality.
  3. Cognitive behavioral therapy: Control what your body is doing physiologically with your mind.
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9
Q

Behavioral genetics

A

Innate behavior & learned behavior (adaptive value). Nature vs. nurture

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10
Q

Heredity

A

passing of traits between generations

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11
Q

Temperament

A

Combination of mental, physical, and emotional traits of a person

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12
Q

Innate behavior examples

A

reflex, orientation (kinesis and taxis), fixed action patterns

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13
Q

Regulatory Genes and Behavior

A

notion that genes are responsible for controlling behavior

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14
Q

Genetically based behavioral variation in natural population

A

Behavioral variation can mimic genetic variation in certain contexts, basis on natural selection

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15
Q

Prenatal development

A

Neurulation occurs.
Neural crest: form disparate tissues
Neural tube: form CNS, invaginate multiple times to become brain

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16
Q

Neural tube parts & what they become

A

1) Alar plate: become sensory neurons

2) Basal plate: become motor neurons

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17
Q

Motor Development

A

1) Rooting reflex: autonomic turning of head in direction of stimulus that touches the cheek
2) Moro reflex: fling out the arms when abrupt movements of heads occur
3) Babinski reflex: toes spread apart automatically when sole is stimulated
4) Grasping reflex: infant closes his/her fingers around object when placed in head

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18
Q

Motor skills: types

A

1) Gross motor skills: incorporate movement from large muscle groups & whole body motion
2) Fine motor skills: involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, eyes, providing more specific & delicate movement

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19
Q

Social Development

A

1) 7months - 1year: Stranger anxiety, separation anxiety
2) By age 5: social conformity to peers, romantic feelings develop
3) Age 6-12: friend circles of same gender
4) Teenage years: more desire for independence, cross-gender friendships become more common. Sexual relationships begin.

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20
Q

General Features of Developmental Milestones

A

1) Gross motor skills progress in head-to-toe order

2) Skills developed at core prior to extremities in motor skill development

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21
Q

Psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) theories of personality

A

assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals & determine personality. By Freud and Jung.

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22
Q

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

A
  • Id: basic, primal, inborn urges to survive & reproduce. (primary process)
  • Ego: operates according to reality principle (secondary process)
  • Superego: personality’s perfectionist, judging actions and responding with pride at accomplishments and guilt at failures
  • Instinct: eros (life instinct) and thantos (death instict)
  • Defense mechanisms
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23
Q

Defense mechanisms

A

i. Repression: ego’s way of forcing undesired thoughts & urges to unconscious
ii. Suppression: deliberate form of forgetting
iii. Regression: reversion to earlier developmental state
iv. Reaction formation: suppress urges by unconsciously converting them to exact opposites
v. Projection: individuals attribute undesired feelings to others
vi. Rationalization: justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self & society
vii. Displacement: transference of undesired urge from one person to another
viii. Sublimation: transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors

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24
Q

Carl Jung’s take on psychoanalytic theory

A

Unconscious mind has 2 parts - personal and collective.
Mandala: symbolization of self.
3 dichotomies of personality

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25
Q

Jung’s Archetypes of Collective Unconscious

A

1) Persona: aspect of our personality we present to the world
2) Anima: man’s inner woman
3) Animus: woman’s inner man
4) Shadow: unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness

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26
Q

3 dichotomies of personality by Jung

A
  1. Extraversion vs. Introversion
  2. Sensing vs. Intuiting
  3. Feeling vs. Thinking
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27
Q

Alfred Adler & psychoanalytic theory

A
  1. Creative self: force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality
  2. Style of life: manifestation of creative self
  3. Fictional finalism: individual motivated more by future expectations than by past
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28
Q

Karen Horney

A

Personality result of interpersonal relationships.

  1. Neurotic needs: directed towards making life and interactions bearable, governs personality
  2. Object relations theory: object = representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy; impact future adult personality
  3. Basic anxiety & hostility: from parental inadequate parenting or neglect
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29
Q

Humanistic (phenomenological) theorists of personality

A

focus on value of individuals, take more person-centered approach to describe ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization. Carl Rogers big.

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30
Q

Humanistic theory: Force field theory

A

Focus on situations in present. Field = current state of mind = forces on individual at the time

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31
Q

Humanistic theory: Maslow

A

self-actualized people have peak experiences

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32
Q

Humanistic theory: personal construct psychology

A
  • Individual as scientist: devise & test predictions about behavior of significant people in his/her life
  • Psychotherapy is a process of insight where individual acquires new constructs that will allow him/her to predict troublesome effects
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33
Q

client-centered, person-centered, nondirective therapy by Rogers

A

unconditional positive reward: therapist accepts client completely & express empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment

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34
Q

Type theorists

A

Taxonomy of personality types.

  1. 4 Humors system
  2. Somatotypes
  3. Type A vs. Type B personalities
35
Q

Trait theorists

A

Clusters of behaviors to describe individuals.

  1. PEN model by Eysneck (Psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism)
  2. Cardinal (center organizer), Central (most recognizable), Secondary traits (limited in occurrence) by Allport. Functional autonomy.
  3. Need for Achievement by McClelland
36
Q

Behaviorist

A

Operant conditioning, Skinner. Token economies

37
Q

Other theories of personality

A
  1. Social cognitive: behaviorist + how environment influences our behavior & how we interact with environment
  2. Biological
38
Q

Biomedical vs. biopsychosocial approaches

A
  1. Biomedical approach: interventions that rally around symptom reduction of psychological disorders
  2. Biopsychosocial approach: biological, psychological, and social components to an individual’s disorder (mostly by George Engel)
39
Q

Rates of psychological disorders

A

25% of U.S. population affected. Most common - specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, alcohol use disorder, PTSD, etc.

40
Q

Jeffrey Alan Gray (Biopsychological theory of personality)

A

Proposed personality is governed by the behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system. (acronym: 50 shades of Gray is based on punishment/rewards)

41
Q

C. Robert Cloninger & theory of personality

A

linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity. (acronym: Clone-iger cares about them brain systems – Clone the Brain)

42
Q

Trait theory: Cattell

A

Proposed we all had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality.

43
Q

Anxiety disorder

A
  1. Generalized anxiety disorder: disproportionate & persistent worry about many different things
  2. Social Anxiety Disorder: anxiety due to social situations
  3. Agoraphobia: fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for individual to escape
  4. Panic disorder: repeated panic attacks
44
Q

Obsessive–compulsive disorder

A
  1. Obsession = persistent, intrusive thoughts & impulses

2. Compulsions = repetitive tasks that relieve tension, but impair one’s life

45
Q

PTSD

A
  1. Intrusion symptoms: recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, prolonged distress
  2. Avoidance symptoms: deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma
  3. Negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event
  4. Arousal symptoms: increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, sleep disturbances, self-destructive behavior
46
Q

Somatic Symptoms

A

At least 1 somatic (bodily) symptom

  1. Disproportionate concerns about its seriousness
  2. Devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it
  3. Elevated levels of anxiety
47
Q

Related disorders to somatic symptoms

A
  1. Illness anxiety disorder: being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition
  2. Conversion disorder (hysteria): unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions
  3. La belle indifference: unconcerned about the symptom
48
Q

Bipolar and related disorders

A
  1. Bipolar I disorder: manic episodes with/without major depressive episodes
  2. Bipolar II disorder: hypomania with at least 1 major depressive episodes
  3. Cyclothymic disorder: hypomanic episodes + periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes
49
Q

Manic episodes symptoms

A

DIG FAST

  1. Distractible
  2. Insomnia
  3. Grandiosity
  4. Flight of ideas (racing thoughts)
  5. Agitation
  6. Speech (pressured)
  7. Thoughtlessness (risky behavior)
50
Q

Depressive disorders

A
  1. Major depressive disorder: mood disorder characterized by at least 1 major depressive episode
  2. Major depressive episode: period of at least 2 weeks with at least 5 of SIG E. CAPS
  3. Persistent depressive disorder: depressed mood that isn’t enough to meet criteria for major depressive episode
  4. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD): major depressive disorder with seasonal onset
51
Q

Symptoms of major depressive episodes

A

SIG E. CAPS

  1. Sleep
  2. Interest (anhedonia)
  3. Guilt
  4. Energy
  5. Concentration
  6. Appetite
  7. Psychomotor symptoms (feeling slowed down)
  8. Suicidal thoughts
52
Q

Schizophrenia

A
  1. Symptoms divided into positive (delusion & hallucination) & negative symptoms (disorganized thought & behavior)
  2. At least 2 of the following symptoms:
    (2. 1) Delusions
    (2. 2) Hallucinations
    (2. 3) Disorganized thought
    (2. 4) Disorganized behavior
    (2. 5) Catatonia - echolalia and echopraxia (repeating words and actions, respectively)
    (2. 6) Disturbance of affect: expression of emotion
    (2. 7) Avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions
  3. Prodromal Phase may occur - a period before Schizophrenia
53
Q

Delusion types

A
  1. Delusions of reference: belief that common elements in environment are directed toward the individual
  2. Delusions of persecution: person being discriminated against, plotted against, threatened, etc.
  3. Delusions of grandeur: person remarkable in some significant way, such as being an inventor, etc.
  4. Thought broadcasting: one’s thoughts are broadcast from one’s head to external world
  5. Thought insertion: thoughts being placed in one’s head
54
Q

Dissociative disorders

A

Person avoids stress by escaping from his/her identity.

  1. Dissociative amnesia: inability to recall past experiences
    (1. 1) Dissociative fugue: sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one’s home or location of usual daily activities
  2. Dissociative identity disorder (DID): 2 or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person’s behavior (“Sybil” example)
  3. Depersonalization/derealization disorder: individuals feel detached from their own mind & body or from their surroundings
55
Q

Personality disorders definition

A

Pattern of behavior that is inflexible & maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in at least 2 of:

  1. Cognition
  2. Interpersonal functioning
  3. Impulse control
56
Q

Clusters of personality disorders

A
  1. Cluster A: labelled as odd/eccentric by others (“Weird”)
  2. Cluster B: labelled as dramatic/emotional/erratic by others (“Wild”)
  3. Cluster C: labelled as anxious/fearful by others (“Worried”)
57
Q

Cluster A personality disorders

A
  1. Paranoid personality disorder: pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives
  2. Schizotypal personality disorder: pattern of odd or eccentric thinking
  3. Schizoid personality disorder: pattern of detachment from social relationship & restricted range of emotional expression
58
Q

Cluster B personality disorders

A
  1. Antisocial personality disorder: pattern of disregard for & violations of rights of others
  2. Borderline personality disorder: pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image
  3. Histrionic personality disorder: constant attention-seeking behavior
  4. Narcissistic personality disorder: grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness
59
Q

Cluster C personality disorders

A
  1. Avoidant personality disorder: extremely shy and fear rejection
  2. Dependent personality disorder: continuous need for reassurance
  3. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD): individual perfectionistic & inflexible, liking rules and order
60
Q

Biological bases of nervous system disorders: Schizophrenia

A
  1. Most common theory = genetic
  2. Trauma at birth (esp. hypoxemia)
  3. Excessive marijuana use in adolescence
  4. Associated w/ excess dopamine in brain
61
Q

Biological bases of nervous system disorders: Depression

A

Markers:

  1. Abnormally high glucose metabolism in amygdala
  2. Hippocampal atrophy after long duration of illness
  3. Abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol)
  4. Decreased NE, serotonin, dopamine

Bipolar disorders

1. Increased NE and serotonin
2. Higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder
3. Higher risk for people w/ multiple sclerosis
62
Q

Biological bases of nervous system disorders: Alzheimer’s

A

Genetic component: mutation in presenilin gene of chromosomes 1 & 14, in apolipoprotein E gene on chromosome 19, b-amyloid precursor protein on chromosome 21.

Other markers: atrophy of brain on CT or MRI, flattened sulci in cerebral cortex, enlarged cerebral ventricles, deficient blood flow in parietal lobes, reduction in levels of Ach, plaques of b-amyloid protein, neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

63
Q

Biological bases of nervous system disorders: Parkinson’s

A
  1. Pill-rolling tremor: flexing & extending fingers while moving the thumb back & forth
  2. Masklike faces: facial expression of static and expresionless facial features
  3. Cogwheel rigidity: muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb
  4. Caused by decreased dopamine production in subtantia nigra
64
Q

Motivation

A

purpose, or driving force, behind our actions

65
Q

Factors that influence motivation

A
  1. Instinct
  2. Arousal
  3. Drives
  4. Needs
66
Q

Instinct Theory of Motivation

A

people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts. McDougall: 18 instinctual motives.

67
Q

Arousal Theory of Motivation

A

People perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Yerkes-Dodson Law.

68
Q

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation

A
  • Drive reduction theory: motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states.
  • Drive: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals
  • Need: lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state.
  • Homeostasis controlled by negative feedback often
69
Q

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A

From lowest to highest level:

i. Physiological
ii. Safety
iii. Love/belonging
iv. Esteem
v. Self-actualization

70
Q

Self-determination theory (SDT)

A

People have three innate psychological needs which are considered as universal necessities.

1) Autonomy: control of one’s actions and ideas
2) Competence: need to complete and excel at different tasks
3) Relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships

71
Q

Incentive theory of motivation

A

behavior motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments

72
Q

Expectancy-value theory of motivation

A

amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is result of both individual’s expectations of success in reaching the goal & degree to which he/she values success of the goal

73
Q

Opponent-Process Theory of motivation

A

Explains tolerance and drug usage. Body counters effects and habituates to drug’s effects.

74
Q

Sexual motivation

A
  1. Kinsey: sexual behavior from interviews with people from broad range of sociocultural backgrounds
  2. Masters & Johnson: physiological measurement of sexual arousal, noting that it’s similar between women and men
  3. Hormone levels and motivation correlated
75
Q

Attitude

A

expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or a scenario

76
Q

Components of Attitude

A
  1. Cognitive: way an individual thinks about something
  2. Affective: way a person feels toward something (emotion)
  3. Behavioral: way a person acts with respect to something
77
Q

Behavior influences attitudes

A
  1. Foot-in-the-door technique:
  2. Door-in-the-face technique
  3. Lowball technique
  4. That’s-not-all technique
78
Q

Theories of Attitudes

A
  1. Functional attitudes theory: attitudes serve 4 functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, ego defense
  2. Learning theory: attitudes are developed through different forms of learning (direct contact, others’ attitudes, observational learning, etc.)
  3. Elaboration likelihood model: explains when people will be influenced by the context of the speech (central route) or more superficial characteristics (peripheral route)
  4. Social cognition theory: people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others
79
Q

Key elements in persuasiveness

A

1) Message persuasiveness
2) Source characteristics
3) Target characteristics

80
Q

How Attitude affects behavior: 4 theories

A
  1. Theory of Planned Behavior
  2. Attitude to behavior process model:
  3. Prototype willingness model
  4. Elaboration likelihood model
81
Q

Theory of Planned Behavior

A

we consider our implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave. Strength of intentions & implications determine behavior.
Intensions are based on:
1. attitude toward a certain behavior
2. subjective norms
3. perceived behavioral control (how hard/easy it is to control the behavior)

82
Q

Attitude to behavior process model

A

An event triggers our attitude, then attitude + some outside knowledge together determines behavior.

83
Q

Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

A

Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behavior.

  1. Past behavior
  2. Attitudes
  3. Subjective norms
  4. Our intentions
  5. Willingness
  6. Models/prototyping
84
Q

Cognitive dissonance theory

A

Cognitive dissonance: discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, believes, values, emotional reactions).
Alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/behaviors - 4 things can occur
1. Modify our cognition (“I don’t really smoke that much”)
2. Trivialize
3. Add (add more cognition - “I exercise so I can smoke”)
4. Deny

MCAT Psychology (8 decks)

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