concept 6b part 1 Flashcards
formation of memories
encoding
storage
retrieval
encoding
process of putting new info into memory
much of that info is passively absorbed from the environment
automatic processing
information that is gained without effort
controlled processing
effortful processing
active memorization
actively work to gain information
with practice controlled becomes automatic
types of encoding processes
visual (weakest form)
acoustic
semantic
self-reference effect (strongest form)
visual encoding
visualize information
acoustic encoding
store info by the way it sounds
semantic encoding
put information into meaningful context
when using the more vivid the context the better
self-reference effect
put information into the context of our own lives
best form of recall
maintenance rehearsal
repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short-term memory and eventually long-term memory
active repetition
mnemonics
common way to memorize info
lists of information
can be acronyms, rhyming phrases or shortcuts
method of loci
associating each item in the list with a location along a route to memorization
peg-word
associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
chunking
clustering
taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meanings
storage
memory is stored several types varying in retention level sensory memory (less retention) short term memory working memory long-term memory (most retention)
sensory memory
consists of iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory
lasts only for a short time
eyes and ears get detailed representation of surroundings
fades quickly unless info is attended to
short-term memory
info that we pay attention to the info we are exposed to
fades quickly without rehearsal (after about30 seconds)
has limited capacity 7+-rule
working memory
integrates attention and function
related to short term memory
enables us to keep a few pieces of info in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information
allows us to do simple math in our heads
long-term memory
lifetime memory
knowledge that we are able to recall on demand
elaborative rehearsal
without rehearsal info moves from short term to long term
2 types of long-term memory
implicit (nodeclarative) memory-unconscious
explicit (declarative) memory- conscious
implicit memory
procedural memory
consists of our skills and conditioned responses
unconscious
explicit memory
declarative memory
memories that require conscious recall
2 types: semantic and episodic
semantic memory
the facts and concepts that we know
episodic memory
our experiences or events
retrieval
process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained
can be thought about in terms of recall
recall
retrieval and statement of previously learned information
learning can be additionally demonstrated by recognizing or quickly relearning information
recognition
process of merely identifying a piece of info that was previously learned
easier than recall
identifying known information
relearning
way of demonstrating that info has been stored in long-term memory
we are able to rememorizes a list quicker after it has previously been learned
spacing effect
phenomenon of retaining larger amounts of information when the amount of time between sessions of learning is increased
cramming is not nearly as effective as spacing out studying over an extended period of time
semantic network
how the brain organizes ideas
concepts are linked together based on similar meaning
spreading activation
unconscious activation of closely linked nodes of a semantic network
at the heart of priming
priming
recall is aided by first being presented with a work or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
retrieval cue
context effects
recall is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place
location retrieval cue
state-dependent memory
recall is affected by a person’s mental state
if person is intoxicated while encoding they will recall the info better when they are intoxicated
serial position effect
retrieval cue that appears while learning lists
higher recall for first and last items on the list
primacy (first) and recency (last) effect
reasons for forgetting
brain disorders
decay
interference
aging
brain disorders
Alzheimer’s disease
Korsakoff’s syndrome
Agnosia
Alzheimer’s disease
degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus
exact cause is not known
marked by progressive dementia and memory loss with atrophy of the brain
neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques
sundowning occurs- worse in late afternoon and evening
Korsakoff’s syndrome
memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain
marked by retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia
common symptom is confabulation
retrograde amnesia
loss of previously formed memories
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
confabulation
process of creating vivid but fabricated memories
typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories
agnosia
loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds
usually only one of the three
usually caused by physical damage to the brain, like stroke or neurological disorder (multiple sclerosis)
decay
memories are simply lost naturally over time as the neurochemcial trace of a story-term memory fades
Ebbinghaus “curve of forgetting”
interference
retrieval error cauised by the existence of other (usually similar) information
can be classified by its direction
proactive interference
old information is interfering with new learning
retroactive interference
new information causes forgetting of old information
prospective memory
remembering to perform a tast at some point in the future
misinformation effect
phenomenon in which memories are altered by misleading information provided at the point of encoding and recall
new info alters memory of what you perceived
source amnesia
confusion between semantic and episodic memory
a person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context under which those details were gained
neuroplasticity
neural connection form rapidly in response to stimuli
reorganization of the brain in response to stimuli
synaptic pruning
weak connections are broken while strong connections are strengthened
increasing the efficiency of our brains’ ability to process info
infants have many connections adults have fewer–> quality over quantity
long-term potentiation
the strengthening of neural connections due to rehearsal or relearning
thought to be the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory
cognition
how our brain processes and reacts to the information overload presented by the world
processed in the frontal lobe, why it is disproportionally large compared to the rest of the brain
information processing model
thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
stimuli must be analyzed by the brain, rather than responded to automatically, to be useful in decision-making
decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (situational modification)
problem-solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but on the context and complexity of the problem
cognitive development
development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan
early cognitive development
limited by the pace of brain maturation
includes learning control of one’s own body and learning how to interact with and manipulate the environment
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor
preoperational
concrete operational
formal operational
Jean Piaget
influential figures in developmental psychology
insisted that there are qualitative differences b/w the way children and adults think
divide the lifespan into 4 stages of cognitive development
believed that passage though each of these stages was a continuous and sequential process in which completion of each stage prepares for next stage
Piaget’s explanation of learning
infants learn mainly through instinctual interaction with the environment
schema
include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events
organized patterns of behavior and thought
as child proceeds though the stages new info is placed into different shemata
adaptation
how Piaget thought new information was processed
adaptation to information comes about by 2 complementary processes
assimilation and accommodation
assimilation
process of classifying new information into existing schemata
accommodation
process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information
if new info doesn’t fit neatly into existing schemata
sensorimotor stage
starting at birth and lasting until about 2 yo
child learns to manipulate his or her environment in order to meet physical needs
2 types of circular reactions begin
development of object permanence
circular reactions
repetitive action that achieves a desired response
seen during Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
primary and secondary
primary circular reactions
are the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance
sucking the thumb
usually the behavior is repeated bc a child finds it soothing
secondary circular reactions
occur when manipuation is forced on something outside the body
repeatedly throwing toys from a high char
often repeated bc the child gets a response from the environment, parent picking up dropped toy
object permanence
the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view
idea behind peak-a-boo
developed in sensorimotor stage
marks the beginning of representational thought
representational thought
child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events
preoperational stage
from about 2-7 yo
characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and contraption
symbolic thinking
ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
egocentrism
inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
centration
tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon
or inability to understand the concept of conversation
concrete operational stage
from 7-11 yo
children can understand conversation and consider the perspectives of others
able to engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or information that is directly available
no yet developed the ability to think abstractly
formal operational stage
starts around 11 and is marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas, generally adolescence
ability to reason about abstract concepts and problem-solve
diff b/w this thought and concrete operational is illustrated by Piaget’s pendulum experiment
pendulum experiment
children were given a pendulum in which they could vary the length of the string, the weight of the pendulum, the force of the push, and the height of the swing
in concrete operational-manipulated the variables at random and even distorted data to fit preconceived hypotheses
adolescents were able to hold all variables but one constant at given time, proceeding methodically to discover only the length of string affect frequency
Lev Vygotsky
educational psychologist
proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is child’s internalization of culture
this includes interpersonal and social rules, symbols, and languages
figure in psychology of identity
fluid intelligence
ability to quickly identify relationships and connections
then use those relationships and connections to make correct deductions
problem-solving skills
shows peak during early adulthood, then declines with age
crystallized intelligence
cognitive capacity to understand relationships or solve problems using information acquired during schooling and other experiences
use of learned skills and knowledge
shows peak during middle adulthood, increases with age until middle adulthood then decreases
conditions that affect cognition
problems with brain itself (brain disorders)
genetic and chromosomal conditions
metabolic derangements
long-term drug use
environment affects cognitive development and day-to-day cognition
parenting styles
fetal alcohol syndrome
slowed cognitive development and distinct craniofacial features skin flows at corner of eye low nasal bridge short nose indistinct philtrum (groove b/w nose and lip) small head circumference small eye opening small mid face thin upper lip
delirium
rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible
caused by medical (nonspychological) causes
electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain
delirium tremens
delirium associated with alcohol withdrawal
can be life-threatening
alcohol is a depressant, the only major drug of abuse in both overdose and withdraw can be lethal
steps of problem solving
- frame the problem: create a mental image or schematic of the issue
- generate a potential solution and begin to test them, may be derived from a mental set
- evaluate the results of tested solutions, consider other potential solutions that may have been easier or more effective
mental set
tendency to approach problems in the same way
repeat solutions that have yielded positive results in the past
functional fixedness
inability to identify uses for an object beyond its usual purpose
demonstrated by Duncker’s candle problem
Duncker’s candle problem
tested the following scenario: you walk into a room and see a box of matches, some tacks, and a candle
your task is to mount the candle on the wall so it can be used without dropping wax on the floor
if you take the candle to the wall wax will drop on the floor
have to realize the matchbox can serve not just as a container for the matches but a holder for the candle, so take the box to the wall and put the candle on top of it
types of problem solving
trial-and-error
algorithms
deductive reasoning
inductive reasoning
trial-and-error
various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work
usually only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions
less sophisticated type of problem solving
algorithms
a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem
can be mathematical or a set of instructions
designed to automatically produce the desired solution
deductive reasoning
top-down reasoning
starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
exp. logical puzzle where one has to synthesize a list of logical rules to come up with a single possible solution to the problem
*key to success on the MCAT
inductive reasoning
bottom-up reasoning
seeks to create a theory via generalizations
starts with specific instances and then draws a conclusion from there
heuristics
simplified principles used to make decisions
are colloquially called rules of thumb
availability and representativeness
availability heuristic
shortcut in decision-making that relies on the information that is most readily available rather than the total body of information on a subject
used when trying to decide how likely something is
representativeness heuristic
shortcut in decision-making that relies on categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
disconfirmation principle
the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work and the solution should be discarded
presence of confirmation bias may prevent an individual from eliminating the solution
confirmation bias
tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them
contributes to overconfidence
together they can impede a person’s analysis of available evidence
overconfidence
tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
intuition
the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence
perceptions about a situation that may or may not be supported by available evidence but are nonetheless perceived as info that may be used to make a decision
people may have beliefs that are not supported but the person “feels” to be correct
recognition-primed decision model
a decision-making model in which experience and recognition of similar situations one has already experienced play a large role in decision-making and actions
also one of the explanations for the experience of intuition
emotion
subjective experience of a person in a certain situation
how a person feels often influences how a person thinks and makes decisions
emotions in decision making are not limited to the emotion experienced while making a decision but how the person expects to feel from a particular decision
multiple intelligences
Garner’s theory
one of the most all-encompassing definitions of intelligence
with 7 defined types of intelligence
Gardner argues that western cultures value linguistic ability and logical-mathematical abilities over the others, these are the 2 abilities tested on traditional IQ tests
Gardner’s types of intelligences
linguistic logical-mathematical musical visual-spatial bodily-kinestheitc interpersonal intrapersonal
intelligence quotient
way to measure intelligence with the use of standardized tests
pioneered by Alfred Binet who created the Stanford-Binet IQ test
IQ=(mental age/chronological age)*100
consciousness
one’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world
states of consciousness
alertness
sleep
dreaming
altered state of consciousness: hypnosis, meditation, and drug-induced altered states
alertness
state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
able to perceive, process, access information, and express that info verbally
certain level of physiological arousal
higher cortisol levels and electroencephalogram (EEG) waves indicate waking state
maintaining alertness
maintained by neurological circuits in the prefrontal cortex
fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation to keep the correct awake and alert
brain injury that results in disruption of these connections result in coma
reticular formation
neural structure located in the brainstem
studying sleep
studied by recording brain wave activity occurring during the course of a night’s sleep
done with electroencephalography (EEG)
electroencephalogram (EEG)
records an average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain
test used to monitor electoral activity in the brain
19 recording electrons placed on the scalp
used to study sleep and identify areas of unusual brain activity
EEG patterns
4 characterisic patterns correlated with the stages of waking and sleeping:
beta, alpha, theta, and delta waves
5th wave that corresponds to REM sleep
beta waves
characterize brain wave activity when we are awake
high frequency
occur when a person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration
when neurons are randomly firing
alpha waves
characterize brain wave activity when we are awake
occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed
somewhat slower than beta waves
aslo more synchronized than beta waves
stage 1 of sleep
enter this stage as soon as you doze off
detected on the EEG by the appearance of theta waves
very light sleep, just dozed off
theta waves
irregular wave forms
slower frequency and higher voltages
appear during stage 1 of sleep when you doze off
stage 2 of sleep
as you fall more deeply asleep
EEG shows theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes
stage 3 and 4 of sleep
aka slow-wave sleep (SWS)
EEG activity grow progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second are seen
deep sleep
during these stages it becomes difficult to rouse someone from sleep
associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation, declarative memory
increased growth hormone release
sleep spindles
appear during stage 2 of sleep with theta waves
are small areas of very high frequency waves
K complex
appear during stage 2 of sleep with theta waves
area of extreme voltage during 1 frequency
high peak and trough appear
delta waves
low frequency and high voltage sleep waves
seen in stage 3 and 4 of sleep
EEG activity grows progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second are seen
NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep
see during stages 1-4 of sleep
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep
interspersed b/w cycles of NREM sleep stages
arousal levels reach that of wakefulness but muscles are paralyzed
aka paradoxical sleep bc one’s heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness but individual is still asleep
stage where dreaming is most likely to occur
associated with memory consolidation, procedural memory
sleep cycles
single complete progression though the sleep stages
about 90 min per cycle
makeup changes during the course of the night
early in the night SWS predominates as brain falls to deep sleep then into more wakeful state
later in night REM predominates
sleep deprivation
causes diminished cognitive performance
person who is sleep-deprived is unlikely to recognize that performance is subpar
also negatively affects mood, problem-solving, and motor skills
extreme deprivation can cause psychosis
circadian rhythms
daily cycle of waking and sleeping
in humans and animals it is a 24 hr cycle that is somewhat affected by external cues such as light
biochemical signals underlie rhythms
sleepiness attributed by blood levels of melatonin
also regulated by cortisol
melatonin
serotonin-derived hormone from the pineal gland
retina has direct connections to the hypothalamus, which control the pineal gland
decreasing light can cause a release of melatonin
cortisol
steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex
related to the sleep-wake cycle
levels slowly increase during early morning bc increasing light causes the release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from hypothalamus, which causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release
contributes to wakefulness
activation-synthesis theory of dreams
dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry
activation can mimic incoming sensory information and may consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences
cortex tries to stitch this unrelated information together, resulting in a dream that is bizarre and familiar
problem-solving dream theory
dreams are a way to solve problems while sleeping
dreams are untethered by the rules of the real world and thus allow interpretation of obstacles differently than during waking hours
cognitive process dream theory
dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
as you may be thinking of upcoming trip when your consciousness quickly shift and change
the content of a dream can also rapidly shift and change
neurocognitive models of dreaming
seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
sleep disorders
2 categories: dyssomnias and parasomnias
types of sleep disorders: insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors, sleepwalking
most occur during NREM sleep
dyssomnias
refers to disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
insomnia
narcolepsy
sleep apnea
parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
night terrors
sleepwalking
insomnia
difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
most common sleep disorder
may be related to anxiety, depression, medications, or disruption of sleep cycles and circadian rhythms
narcolepsy
condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
person may just randomly and uncontrollably fall asleep
symptoms are cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
cataplexy
loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours
usually caused by emotional trigger
sleep paralysis
sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
sleep apnea
an inability to breathe during sleep
people w/ this disorder awaken often during the night in order to breathe
can be obstructive (occurs when a physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow) or central (occurs when brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe)
hypnagogic hallucinations
hallucinations that occur when one is Going to bed
hypnaGOgic and GOing to bed
hypnopompic hallucinations
hallucinations that occur when one is popping out of bed (when awakening)
hypnoPOmPic and POPping out of bed
night terrors
periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
common in children
often thrash and scream
show signs of sympathetic overdrive, high heart rate and rapid breathing
bc its during SWS it is difficult to wake them and they usually don’t remember it in the morning
sleepwalking
somnambulism
occurs during SWS
may eat, talk, have sexual intercourse, or even drive great distances while sleeps
no recollection of the event
most return to their beds and awake in the morning
awakening a sleepwak will not harm the person but suggested to quietly guid them back to bed to avoid disturbing SWS
hypnosis
state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal function but is in a highly suggestible state
hypnotized person easily succumbs to suggestion of others
used to recover repressed memories of trauma, pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation
process of hypnosis
starts with hypnotic induction, hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subjects level of concentration
then hypnotist can suggest perceptions or actions to the hypnotized person
meditation
state of consciousness entered voluntarily
characterized by a decreased level of physiological arousal and a quieting of the mind
central practice in religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Judaism, and others
often used for counseling and psychotherapy
causes physiological changes such as decreased heart rate and blood pressure
on EEG it resembles stage 1 of sleep with theta and slow alpha waves
