CONCEPT 42: TWO LEAVENERS ARE OFTEN BETTER THAN ONE

Question 1

Why did the advent of chemical leaveners in the 19th century make it easier for cooks to bake at home?

Answer 1

They didn’t have to rely on fickle yeast in order to make cake; chemical leaveners are quick and reliable.

Question 2

Are chemical leaveners confusing?

Answer 2

YES

Question 3

Quick breads, muffins, and biscuits as well as cookies get their rise from what?

Answer 3

Chemical leaveners

Question 4

The gas that causes baked goods to rise.

Answer 4

Carbon dioxide

Question 5

Chemical leaveners work with what to create carbon dioxide?

Answer 5

Acid

Question 6

How long does it take to produce carbon dioxide when baking soda and acid interact?

Answer 6

Immediately, forming bubble in the batter or dough.

Question 7

List 4 acidic ingredients used for baking.

Answer 7

Molasses, buttermilk, sour cream, eggs, yogurt.

Question 8

What happens if you use too little baking soda in a recipe?

Answer 8

You won’t have enough bubbles and the dough won’t rise.

Question 9

What happens if you use too much baking soda?

Answer 9

You end up with too much carbon dioxide, which causes the bubbles to get too big. These large bubbles eventually join up and burst, resulting in a flat finished product.

Question 10

What does too much baking soda do to taste?

Answer 10

You end up with a metallic tasting, coarse crumbed quick bread or cake.

Question 11

Is baking soda alkaline?

Answer 11

Yes

Question 12

How much baking soda is in baking powder? What is the rest?

Answer 12

Baking soda makes up about one-quarter to one-third of baking powder. The rest is a dry acid, such as cream of tartar, and double-dried cornstarch.

Question 13

Why is double-dried cornstarch added to baking powder?

Answer 13

It absorbs moisture and keeps the baking soda and dry acid apart during storage, preventing premature production of gas.

Question 14

What happens when moisture is added to baking powder?

Answer 14

The dry acid comes into contact with the baking soda, producing carbon dioxide.

Question 15

When do cooks use baking powder?

Answer 15

When there is no naturally acidity in the batter or dough.

Question 16

How many kinds of baking powder are there? Explain.

Answer 16

One, single-acting baking powder has only one acid combined with the baking soda–a quick-acting acid that begins to work when liquid is added to the batter. Two, a double-acting baking powder (virtually all supermarket brands) has two or more acids added to the baking soda.

Question 17

Besides cream of tartar, what other acid is found in double-acting baking soda? Explain.

Answer 17

Sodium aluminum sulfate, also known as alum, begins to work after the dish is put in the oven, when its temperature climbs above 120ºF.

Question 18

Does test kitchen recommend single or double acting? Why?

Answer 18

Double-acting. Baked goods rise higher since most of the rise with baking powder occurs at oven temperatures. Also, single-acting doesn’t provide sufficient leavening for doughs with little liquid such as scones or muffins.

Question 19

Why does test kitchen use a combination of baking powder and soda in most recipes?

Answer 19

The combination gives better control over how fast gas is released as well as the alkalinity of the dough.

Question 20

Why is baking soda added in the presence of extra acid?

Answer 20

Sometimes a recipe contains so much acid that baking soda is added to ensure baking powder is not neutralized and deactivated by all the acid.

Question 21

Why does baking soda produce a more alkali dough than baking powder? Benefits?

Answer 21

It relies on the acid from other ingredients in the recipe. More alkaline doughs brown faster and have weaker gluten, producing a more tender, porous crumb.

Question 22

Why does browning occur best in an alkaline environment?

Answer 22

An amino acid molecule (like those found in the proteins in flour) has two ends–one is the amino end and one is the acid; the acid end is acidic and the amino is alkaline. It’s the alkaline end that has to react with the sugar molecules for Maillard reaction to occur. In an acidic solution, the alkaline ends are deactivated. In an alkaline environment created by the addition of baking soda, the amino ends thrive and they can react with the sugar to create browning.

Question 23

TEST KITCHEN: BISCUITS MADE WITH 2 TSP BAKING POWDER AND 1/2 TSP BAKING SODA, 2 TSP BAKING POWDER AND 3 TSP BAKING POWDER.

Answer 23

Biscuits all rose to the same height; however, the similarities ended there. Two batches made without soda were anemic in color with smooth tops while dual-leavened biscuits were well browned and covered in crispy crags. Dual leavened biscuits also tasted richer and nuttier while the batch made with 3 teaspoons didn’t rise any higher than the batch made with 2 but had a chemical aftertaste.

Question 24

Will baking powder along provide sufficient leavening?

Answer 24

In most cases, the answer is yes.

Question 25

Why is the baking soda crucial for test kitchens biscuits?

Answer 25

First, it immediately reacts with the buttermilk (an acid) to produce tiny carbon dioxide bubbles to lighten the batter. Second, it neutralizes the batter’s acidity to create a more alkaline environment that promotes Maillard reaction and creates hundreds of new flavor compounds.

Question 26

Keys to perfect pancakes.

Answer 26

Don’t mix too much, use lower protein flour, add buttermilk and sour cream, use leaveners.

Question 27

When our forbears set out to make buttermilk pancakes what advantage did they have?

Answer 27

They had real buttermilk instead of the thinly flavored liquid processed from skim milk and cultured bacteria that passes for buttermilk today; early Americans turned to the fat-flecked byproduct of churning cream into butter.

Question 28

How do you add more tang to pancakes? Why doesn’t more buttermilk work?

Answer 28

More buttermilk means a greater concentration of acid in the mix, which causes the baking soda to bubble too rapidly. Result: pancakes that over-inflate when first cooked, then deflate becoming dense and wet. A little sour cream adds a ton of flavor but doesn’t radically affect the consistency.

Question 29

Why should you lets pancake batter rest for 10 minutes after mixing?

Answer 29

Even with minimal mixing some gluten develops. During a 10-minute rest, the gluten relaxes and the end result is tender pancakes.

Question 30

How do you know if a pan is hot enough for pancakes?

Answer 30

Test the skillet with a half-dollar sized pancake (about 1 tablespoon). If the pancake is a blonde color after one minute the skillet isn’t ready, if it’s golden brown you’re ready to cook; speeding up the process by heating the pan at a higher temperature will result in a dark, unevenly cooked pancake.

Question 31

Test kitchens recommendation for multigrain pancake mix.

Answer 31

Familia brand no-sugar-added muesli. Alpen is also good.

Question 32

Griddle temp for pancakes.

Answer 32

350ºF

Question 33

How do you solve the problem of making multigrain pancakes too chewy and gummy?

Answer 33

Converting muesli cereal into flour and combining it with other flour options, as well as adding two leaveners.

Question 34

Less acidic buttermilk substitute used for pancakes.

Answer 34

Milk and lemon juice; regular buttermilk made multigrain pancakes too sour.

Question 35

Why does loading up on unprocessed grains bad for multigrain pancakes?

Answer 35

Great for flavor but bad for texture.

Question 36

Is baking soda a browning agent?

Answer 36

Yes

Question 37

Besides gluten formation, why does pancake batter need to be rested for 10 minutes?

Answer 37

Flour needs time to absorb all the liquid, ensuring that the batter sets up properly. Skipping this step will lead to pancakes that run together in the pan and cook up flat.

Question 38

How do you keep cooked pancakes warm?

Answer 38

Spread them out on a cooling rack, sprayed with vegetable oil, in the oven at 200ºF for up to 20 minutes; stacking them will cause excess steam and make pancakes rubbery.

Question 39

Why does the first batch of pancakes turn out spotted while the rest are perfect?

Answer 39

When fresh oil hits the pan the surface tension of the oil causes it to bead together into little droplets, leaving some of the pan bottom without a coating. Since bare metal conducts heat better than oil, when you ladle your batter into the pan the spots directly in contact with uncoated metal will cook faster than those touching oil. By the time you get your second batch of batter the oil has undergone chemical changes that make the molecules less prone to cluster. What’s more, the first batch of pancakes has absorbed much of the oil, leaving only a thin film that’s more likely to be evenly distributed across the pan.

Question 40

How do you avoid spots on pancakes?

Answer 40

Apply oil to an unheated pan or griddle. Allow the oil to heat up over medium heat for at least one minute, then use a paper towel to wipe away all but a thin, barely visible layer to prevent sticking.

Question 41

Do all biscuits need cold butter incorporated into flour?

Answer 41

No, you can use the quick-bread method: combine melted butter with buttermilk and add liquid mixture to dry mixture.

Question 42

Why use regular AP flour for biscuits?

Answer 42

Since the dough is not kneaded or rolled, you actually want a little gluten for the structure of your biscuits; AP has more protein than softer flours.

Question 43

How does adding buttermilk help biscuits?

Answer 43

Provides much needed flavor and add baking soda; baking soda reacts with the buttermilk and gives the biscuits a crisper, browner exterior and fluffier middle.

Question 44

What should be noted about combining buttermilk and melted butter (or any liquid)?

Answer 44

Requires that both ingredients be at just the right temperature; if they aren’t, the melted butter clumps in the cold buttermilk.

Question 45

Why is lumpy buttermilk (melted butter chunked up in cool buttermilk) ok for the quick biscuit recipe?

Answer 45

It mimics the chunks of fat in a classic biscuit recipe. The result is surprisingly better biscuit, slightly higher and with better texture; water in the lumps of butter turn to steam in the oven, helping create additional lift.

Question 46

What kind of milk is widely recommended as a substitute for buttermilk in baked goods?

Answer 46

“Clabbered” milk.

Question 47

What is “clabbered” milk?

Answer 47

Stirring lemon juice into milk (1 tablespoon per cup) and let the mixture sit for 10 minutes to “clabber” (or thicken) before proceeding with the recipe.

Question 48

Why is “clabbering” (resting 10 minutes) unnecessary? Explain.

Answer 48

When lemon juice is added to milk, the citric acid changes the electrical charge on dairy’s casein proteins, causing them to coagulate tightly into clumps. On the other hand, the Lactobacillus bacteria added to milk to produce commercial buttermilk remove some of the sugar molecules bonded to the proteins, allowing them to form a smooth gel over time.

Question 49

When adding lemon juice to milk, how long does it take to thicken?

Answer 49

Curds formed almost instantly but nothing continued after that.

Question 50

TEST KITCHEN: RESTING CLABBERED MILK FOR 10 MINUTES AND NOT AT ALL. USED ON PANCAKES AND BISCUITS.

Answer 50

No difference was found in any of the baked goods.

Question 51

What is the key to getting texture right in many cookie recipes?

Answer 51

Understanding how to use baking soda and baking powder.

Question 52

Key to chewy texture in sugar cookies is what?

Answer 52

All in the fat.

Question 53

For optimal chew, a recipe must contain what? Explain.

Answer 53

Saturated and unsaturated fat in approximately a 1:3 ratio. When combined, the two types of fat molecules form a sturdier crystalline structure that requires more force to bite through than the structure formed from a high proportion of saturated fats.

Question 54

Butter is predominately what type of fat?

Answer 54

Saturated.

Question 55

Ratio of saturated to unsaturated fat when butter is used solo.

Answer 55

2:1

Question 56

For sugar cookies, why does melting the butter help so much?

Answer 56

First, it eliminates on of the trickier aspects of baking sugar cookies: ensuring that the solid butter is just the right temperature. Second, melted butter aids in our quest for chewiness. When liquified, the small amount of water in butter mixes with flour to form gluten, which makes for chewier cookies. Finally, with creaming out of the equation, we no longer need to pull out our stand mixer– you can make them completely by hand.

Question 57

What does cream cheese do for sugar cookies?

Answer 57

Enriches the dough’s flavor without adding moisture like other tangy dairy products.

Question 58

Does cream cheese just add flavor?

Answer 58

No, it also adds acidity. And this allows us to add baking soda.

Question 59

What does an acidic ingredient help solve in cookies?

Answer 59

As long as there’s an acidic ingredient present, baking soda has all sorts of special powers, including the ability to solve cookies’ other two pesky problems: a slightly humped shape and not enough crackle.

Question 60

Does the pH of common foods influence the work of leaveners?

Answer 60

Yes

Question 61

pH of egg whites.

Answer 61

7.6-8.0

Question 62

pH of water.

Answer 62

6.9-7.3

Question 63

pH of chicken.

Answer 63

6.5-6.7

Question 64

pH of flour.

Answer 64

6.0-6.3

Question 65

pH of ground beef.

Answer 65

5.1-6.2

Question 66

pH of sugar.

Answer 66

5.0-6.0

Question 67

pH of buttermilk.

Answer 67

4.5

Question 68

pH of canned tomatoes.

Answer 68

3.5-4.7

Question 69

pH of lemon juice.

Answer 69

2.2-2.4

Question 70

What is baking powder responsible for in cookies? How can this be bad. Explain.

Answer 70

It’s responsible for lift. Since it’s engineered to produce most of its gas after the cookies go into the oven, where the dough sets before these bubbles can burst. But too much lift can mean cookies that turn out humped; this is where baking soda comes in.

Question 71

How does baking soda help cookies spread?

Answer 71

As long as there’s an acidic ingredient in the dough, a small amount of baking soda can even things out. It raises the pH of dough (baking powder does too, but not as high), weakening gluten. Weakened gluten means less structure and cookies that spread. Goodbye humped shapes.

Question 72

How does baking soda create crackly tops?

Answer 72

Baking soda reacts immediately in wet dough to produce large bubbles of carbon dioxide that can’t all be contained by the weakened dough. Before the cookies can set in the oven, the bubbles rise to the top and burst, leaving fissures in their wake.

Question 73

Whole hulled oats are called what? How are they processed?

Answer 73

They’re called groats. After being heated to inhibit rancidity, they are further processed, according to the particular style.

Question 74

What are steel-cut oats?

Answer 74

Groats sliced into three or four pieces by steel blades.

Question 75

What are old-fashioned or rolled oats?

Answer 75

Groats steamed and rolled flat or flaked.

Question 76

What are quick oats?

Answer 76

Steel-cut oats steamed and rolled to one-third (or less) the thickness of regular oats.

Question 77

What are instant oats?

Answer 77

Very finely cut groats that are rapidly cooked and rolled flat.

Question 78

Test kitchen’s reasoning for use (or no use) of old-fashioned oats, quick oats, instant oats and steel cut oats.

Answer 78

Old-fashioned oats for the best texture and flavor. Quick oats can be used in many recipes, in a pinch; their flavor is weaker and texture of the baked good might be slightly less chewy. Instant oats are very bland and their powdery texture can negatively impact many baked goods. Never bake with steel-cut oats; anything from scones to cookies can end up like aquarium gravel–great for breakfast, however.

Question 79

Why should you cream the butter for thin and crisp oatmeal cookies? Explain.

Answer 79

Creaming butter, rather than melting it, tends to make a crisper cookie. When solid butter is mixed with sugar, air is incorporated into the mixture and held there by crystals of solid fat. This is especially true when they’re mixed on medium speed until light and fluffy. This extra air allows the cookies to dry faster in the oven, producing crispier cookies.

Question 80

Does extra sugar make cookies chewy?

Answer 80

Yes, the greater the amount of sugar, the chewier the cookie.

Question 81

If extra sugar makes a cookie chewy, how do you account for this “problem?”

Answer 81

Using all granulated sugar makes the cookie hard and crunchy, with a one-dimensional, overly sweet flavor. Using light brown sugar in place of some of the granulated sugar aids in flavor–with subtle caramel notes–without compromising texture.

Question 82

How can you ensure that cookies spread evenly?

Answer 82

Press the dough ball flat, then bake and use plenty of leaveners; large carbon dioxide bubbles cause the cookies to puff up, collapse, and spread out.

Question 83

Should you put raw cookie dough on a hot sheet pan? Why?

Answer 83

No, the dough begins to melt and spread before it even reaches the oven, which can adversely affect the texture of the cookies; larger cookies weren’t effected as much but smaller, thinner cookies were.

Question 84

How to avoid hot sheet pan when baking cookies.

Answer 84

Place parchment paper under the cookies so you can easily slide them off out of the oven. Wait for metal to cool, run under cold water, dry and repeat.

Question 85

How many sheets should you bake at a time? Explain.

Answer 85

One, baking two trays can lead to uneven cooking; the cookies on top are usually browner around the edges than the bottom tray.

Question 86

What must you do at the half way mark to ensure even baking?

Answer 86

Rotate the tray.