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A Level: Biology > Communicable Diseases, Prevention And The Immune System > Flashcards

Communicable Diseases, Prevention And The Immune System Flashcards

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1
Q

Define health

A

State of mental, physical and social wellbeing

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2
Q

Define disease

A

Departure from health due to malfunction of mind or body that cause symptoms

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3
Q

What is a pathogen

A

An infective organism which causes disease

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4
Q

What are the four types of pathogen

A

Bacteria
Fungi
Viruses
Protoctista

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5
Q

What do vectors do

A

Carry pathogens from one organism to another

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6
Q

Define degenerative disease

A

Results in gradual decline in bodily functions

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7
Q

Define infectious disease

A

Diseases which are transmitted by a pathogenic organism which invades the body

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8
Q

What does self inflicted disease mean

A

Disease caused by poor choices

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9
Q

Define deficiency disease

A

Diseases caused by poor diet

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10
Q

Define inherited disease

A

Disease caused by genetic faults passed on from parents

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11
Q

Define mental disease

A

Diseases affecting the mind

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12
Q

Define physical disease

A

Permanent or temporary damage to part of the body

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13
Q

What is a parasite

A

Organism that lives in or on a host taking nutrition and causes harm

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14
Q

What does a parasite take from the host

A
  • nutrition
  • warmth
  • protection
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15
Q

How does bacteria affect the host

A

Damaging cells

Producing toxins

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16
Q

How fast does a bacteria do asexual reproduction

What is the process called

A

Every 20 minutes

Called binary fission

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17
Q

Bacteria is a prokaryote, what is the cell structure like

A

No nucleus

No membrane bound organelles

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18
Q

What are the two ways of classifying bacteria

A

By the shape ( rod shape, spherical, spiral…)

By the cell walls

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19
Q

How can you identify bacteria by the cell walls

A

Gram staining- identify the thickness of the peptidoglycan cell walls
This shows whether they are gram positive or gram negative

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20
Q

What do viruses make people ill

A 
Invading cells
Take over genetic machinery
Make copies of viruses using cells ribosomes etc
Host cell bursts 
Copies are released
🔁
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21
Q

What does a fungi do to make people ill

A

Live on the skin
Send out reproductive hyphae
These produce spores
And cause redness and irritation

They digest living cells and then destroy them

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22
Q

What type of organism are fungi

A

Eukaryotic

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23
Q

What is a saprophyte

A

Digest dead/decaying matter

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24
Q

How do fungi spread

A

They produce spores which reproduce

These can travel large distances ( ie in the wind )

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25
Q

What type of organism is protoctista

A

Single called Eukaryote

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26
Q

How do protoctista damage the host tissue directly

A

They digest and use the contents of a cell when they reproduce and eventually break open cells

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27
Q

What do toxins do

A

Break down the plasma membranes
Damage and inactivate enzymes
Prevent cell division

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28
Q

Name the three ways of direct transmission in animals

A

1) direct contact
2) inoculation (break into the skin)
3) ingestion

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29
Q

Name the three ways of indirect transmission in animals

A

1) formites ( bedding/ socks)
2) droplet infection
3) vectors

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30
Q

How can the probability of a catching a communicable disease

A
  • overcrowded living places
  • compromised immune system ( immunosuppressant drugs)
  • poor disposal of waste
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31
Q

How are diseases directly transmitted in plants

A

-direct contact

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32
Q

How are plant diseases indirectly transmitted

A
  • soil contamination

- vectors ( wind water animals)

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33
Q

What are some of the factors that affect the transmission of disease in plants

A
  • over- crowding
  • poor mineral nutrition
  • damp, war conditions ( bacteria reproduce faster)
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34
Q

What are some of the plant barriers to pathogens

A
  • tree bark
  • waxy cuticle
  • cellulose cell walls
  • closing stomata
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35
Q

Define cell signalling

A

The coordination and communication between cells

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36
Q

Describe the process of cell signalling in plants in response to a pathogen

A

1) receptors in plant cells respond to molecules from pathogen made when plant cell is attacked
2) stimulates the release of signalling molecules
3) signalling molecules switch on genes in nucleus
4) this triggers a series of cellular responses:
- defensive chemicals
- defensive molecules to directly attack the pathogen
- callose and lignin made

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37
Q

Explain how callose is a plant defence

A

-When plants are infected by a pathogen they produce high levels of a polysaccharide called callose
-This is deposited between cell walls and cell surface membranes of cells next to infected cells
-they act as a BARRIER and prevent the pathogen entering cells around the site of infection
-Callose and lignin together make the barrier even thicker
-callose blocks sieve plates in the phloem sealing off the infected part
-deposited in the plasmodesmata to prevent spread
Acts as a matrix which antimicrobial compounds can be deposited in

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38
Q

Describe the structure of callose

A

Contains beta 1–3 and beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds

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39
Q

Name some chemical defences that plants produce

A

1) insect repellents- ie citronella
2) insecticides- caffeine is toxic to insects and fungi
3) antibacterial compounds- defensins
4) antifungal compounds- chitinases
5) anti oomycetes- glucanases
6) general toxins- cyanide

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40
Q

How do antibacterial compounds help a plant defend itself

A

Defensins- are plant proteins that disrupt bacterial/ fungal cell membranes

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41
Q

How do anti fugal compounds help plants defend themselves

A

Chitinases ( enzyme) hydrolyse chitin in fungal cell walls

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42
Q

How do anti oomycetes help plants defend themselves

A

Glucanases ( enzymes ) that break down glucans which are polymers found the cell walls of oomycetes

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43
Q

What is a oomycetes

A

A fungus like microorganism

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44
Q

How is cyanide toxic

A

Stops aerobic respiration

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45
Q

How is skin a primary non specific defence

A
  • Covers the body and prevents the entry of pathogens
  • Covered with a layer of healthy microorganisms which outcompete pathogens for space on the body surface
  • Skin produces sebum
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46
Q

What is th importance of the skin producing sebum

A

An oily substance that prevents pathogen growth

It is anti microbial

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47
Q

How do mucous membranes act as a primary non specific defence

A
  • body tracts including airways of gas exchange are lined with these mucous membranes
  • these secrete mucus which traps microorganisms and contain lysozymes which destroy bacteria and fungal cell walls
  • mucus contains phagocytes which remove remaining pathogens
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48
Q

What is the job of lysozymes

A

Destroy bacteria and fungal cell walls

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49
Q

What are some expulsion reflexes

What are they an example of

A
  • coughing
  • Sneezing
  • vomiting
  • diarrhoea

These are examples of primary non specific defences

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50
Q

Describe wound repair

A

Platelets come into contact with collagen In wall of the damaged blood vessel, they adhere and start secreting substances including:

  • thromboplastin
  • factor X
  • serotonin

Forms a blood clot- this dries out forming a scab
Epidermal cells beneath the scab start to grow sealing the wound permanently

Collagen fibres are deposited to give new tissue strength
Once epidermis is normal, scab sloughs off and wound is healed 🤯

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51
Q

What does thromboplastin do

A

It’s an enzyme that triggered a cascade of reactions resulting in a blood clot

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52
Q

What does serotonin do

A

Makes smooth muscle in the wall of blood vessel contract

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53
Q

What does factor X do

A

It’s an enzyme that is dependent on the co factor vitamin K is catalyses the conversion of prothrombin into the enzyme thrombin ( does this by altering the tertiary structure)
Thrombin then catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin fibres which then forms the blood clot

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54
Q

What are some of the characteristics of inflammation

A

Pain
Heat
Redness
Swelling

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55
Q

Explain the cell signalling response to inflammation

A

1) mast cells bind to pat often
2) mast cells release histamine in local area
3) histamines bind to localised cells receptors
4) histamines make muscle in walls of blood vessels dilate
5) this triggers increased blood flow to area which makes capillaries more permeable to phagocytes

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56
Q

What do cytokines do

A

Stimulate hypothalamus to reset internal temperature to above 37 degrees - stops pathogen from reproducing

Cytokines attract white blood cells to the site

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57
Q

What are the two types of phagocytes

Explain the difference

A

Neutrophils- released from bone marrow/ multi lobed nucleus

Macrophages- released from lymph nodes

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58
Q

How can u identify from a blood smear a…

Platelet
RBC
Neutrophil
Monocyte
Lymphocyte
A 
Platelet- very small only fragments of cell
RBC- no nucleus 
Neutrophils- multi lobed nucleus 
Monocyte- rounded nucleus
Lymphocyte- massive nucleus
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59
Q

Describe the process of phagocytosis

A

1) phagocyte receptors bind to pathogens antigen
2) pathogen is identified by antigens
3) pathogen is engulfed by phagocytosis into phagosome
4) lysosome fuses with phagosome releasing digestive enzymes
5) pathogen is hydrolyse into amino acids or glucose
6) useful material is absorbed into cytoplasm

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60
Q

Name the digestive enzymes in a phagolysosome

A

Lysins

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61
Q

What is phagocytosis an example of

A

Endocytosis

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62
Q

What are opsonins

A

Chemicals that bind to pathogens and tag them
Making them easily recognised by phagocytes
Phagocytes have receptors on cell surface membranes that bind to common opsonins

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63
Q

Give an example of an opsonins

A

Antibodies

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64
Q

How often do bacteria reproduce

A

Every 20 minutes

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65
Q

What type of pathogen is tuberculosis

A

Bacteria

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66
Q

What does tuberculosis do

A

Damages the lungs and suppressed immune system

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67
Q

Can tuberculosis be cured

Can it be prevented

A

Yes by antibiotics

Yes can have a Vaccination

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68
Q

How is tuberculosis transmitted

A

1) bacteria is transmitted in droplets
2) bacteria is encased in tubercle
3) bacteria are then dormant
4) bacteria destroy alveoli
5) leads to fibrosis/ scaring
6) reduces diffusion through less surface area

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69
Q

What factors increase the transmission of TB

A
  • weakened immune system
  • overcrowding
  • poor diet
  • homeless
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70
Q

How is bacteria released into the air

A

Through coughing and sneezing this can spread the disease to other organisms

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71
Q

3 reasons why TB has not been eradicated

A
  • Antibiotic resistance
  • Vaccine is less than 100% effective
  • Developing countries can not afford treatment
72
Q

What type of pathogen causes meningitis

A

Bacteria

73
Q

How does meningitis affect the organism

A

Affects the protective membranes on the surface of the brain called meninges

74
Q

What are some of the other diseases that can be caused through meningitis

A

Can spread to the rest of the body causing blood poisoning and death

75
Q

Can meningitis be cured

A

Yes if antibiotics are delivered early enough

Can

76
Q

What type of pathogen causes ring rot

A

Bacterial

77
Q

What damage does ring rot cause

A

Damage to leaves, tubers and fruits

78
Q

Is there a cure for ring rot

A

No

79
Q

What do viruses do

A 
Invade cells
Take over genetic machinery
Make cells they have infected make viral copies
Host cell bursts
Copies released
80
Q

What does HIV stand for

A

Human immunodeficiency virus

81
Q

What does AIDs stand for

A

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

82
Q

What does the HIV virus affect

A

T helper cells of the bodies immune system

83
Q

What does HIV have that helps it join with a T cell

A

Receptors

84
Q

Why is HIV difficult to prevent

A

No cure
No vaccine
High mutation rate
Cannot be treated with antibiotics

85
Q

Why is HIV more common in Africa

A

Poverty
Less education on disease transmission
Promiscuity
More intravenous drug abuse

86
Q

What type of pathogen is influenza

A

Viral

87
Q

What does influenza affect

A

Ciliates epithelial cells of the respiratory system

These are killed and leads to secondary infection

88
Q

what does a mutation cause

A

a change to the antigens on the surface of the cell

89
Q

is there a vaccine for influenza

A

yes

it is given to vulneraable groups annually

90
Q

how do new strains emerge

A

influenza virus mutates and the antigens on the cell surface change. means that memory cells are not as effective and no antibodies for new antigen are produced

increases difficulty in producing vaccines

91
Q

what are we doing about the flu

A 
national vaccinations for vulnerable groups:
over 65yrs
weak immune system
infants
pregnant women
92
Q

explain the difference between epidemic and pandemix

A

epidemic- when a disease is located in a particular area

pandemic- when a disease is located across whole continents

93
Q

what type of pathogen causes tobacco mosaic virus

A

virus

94
Q

what does TMV cause

A

damage to leaves, flowers and fruit
causes a yellowing of leaves giving a mosaic pattern
stunts growth and reduces yield for farmers

95
Q

describe protoctista

A

generally single celled
eukaryotes
enters cells and feeds on contents

96
Q

what causes malaria

A

protoctista

the plasmodium

97
Q

what is the vector for malaria

A

female anopheles mosquito

98
Q

what does plasmodium infect

A

erythrocytes , liver cells and the brain

99
Q

is there cure and vaccine for malaria

A

no and no

100
Q

list 3 ways how we can deal with malaria

A

pesticide spray
sleep under nets
antimalarial drugs

101
Q

name the process of transmission of the plasmodium parasite

A

1) female anopheles mosquito bites and releases saliva containing the plasmodium into the blood
2) plasmodium multiply in liver cells and are released back into the blood
3) gametes released into the blood
4) gametes taken into the female anopheles stomach on feeding
5) gametes fuse to form zygotes and then plasmodium in salivary glands

102
Q

why is malaria such a problem

A

5 different species of plasmodium parasite

103
Q

what is the cause of potato and tomato blight

A

protoctista ( the protoctist oomycete)

104
Q

how does an oomycete differ to a fungus

A

cell wall made of cellulose in oomycete

105
Q

what does the hyphae in potato and tomato blight do

A

penetrates host cell which causes destruction to leaves fruit and tubers

106
Q

what does fungi send out, what does this cause?

A

reproductive hyphae which produce spores which can cause redness and irritation

107
Q

what type of pathogen causes black sigatoka

A

fungi

108
Q

what does black sigatoka do

A

causes black streaks in leaves and the fungus digests the leaves

109
Q

what are some of the consequences of black sigatoka

A

reduces the plants ability to carry out photosynthesis

110
Q

what is used to kill the fungus

A

fungicides

111
Q

what type of pathogen causes ring worm

A

funghal

112
Q

what does ring worm cause and what does this lead to

A

a scaly crusted rash that may appear as round, red patches on the skin

leads to itching and blister like lesions

113
Q

how is ringworm cured

A

by using antifungal creams

114
Q

what type of pathogen causes athletes foot

A

fungal

115
Q

what is athletes foot a type of

A

ring worm

116
Q

what does ring worm produce

A

enzymes that digest the skin

117
Q

how is ring worm cured

A

using anti fungal creams

118
Q

What type of pathogen causes athletes foot

A

Fungal

119
Q

Where does the fungus in athletes foot live

A

In between the toes where it is moist and warm

120
Q

What does the fungus in athletes foot produce

A

Enzymes that digest the skin

121
Q

Define non self antigen

A

A glycoproteins on the surface of a pathogen which causes an immune response

122
Q

Define self antigen

A

A glycoproteins on cell surface membrane of body cells

The immune system recognised these cells as self

123
Q

How many polypeptides in an antibody

What bond holds them together

A

4 polypeptides ( 2 light and 2 heavy)

Disulphides bridges

124
Q

What is the variable region specific to

A

That particular antibodies primary structure

125
Q

What part of the antibody bonds to phagocytes

A

Constant region

126
Q

What does the hinge region allow

A

Flexibility

127
Q

What are the two functions of antibodies

A

Neutralisation and agglutination

128
Q

What does neutralisation mean

A

Antibodies covering the pathogen binding sites prevent the pathogen from binding to a host cell and entering the cell

129
Q

What does agglutination mean

A

A large antibody can bind many pathogens together

This makes them too large to enter a host celll

130
Q

What are anti toxins

A

Antibodies that can also hind to toxins made by some pathogens this renders them harmless

131
Q

What does complement cascade mean

A

Complement proteins in the blood interact with the bacterial cell surface membrane and form holes in it

132
Q

What do the job of a macrophage

A

Engulf and digest pathogens in lymph nodes and present antigens on cell surface membrane

133
Q

What is the job of a neutrophil

A

E gulf and digest pathogens in the blood around the body

134
Q

Where do t- helper cells mature

A

In the thymus gland

135
Q

Name the type of receptors on t helper cells

What do these do

A

CD4 receptors

They bind to the antigens presented on APCs

136
Q

Once activated what do t helper cells release

What do they do

A

Interleukins

Stimulate the T cells to divide by mitosis

Interleukins also cause b-lymphocytes to divide by mitosis and stimulate the process of phagocytosis

137
Q

What do cloned t. Cells divide into

A

T killer cells

T memory cells

138
Q

What do t killer cells produce

A

Toxin hydrogen peroxide to kill infected cells

And perforin that makes holes in the cell surface membrane

139
Q

What else do t memory cells do

A

They form the immunological memory

Live for a long time

Develop from cloned T cells as a result of cell mediated immunity

140
Q

What do t regulator cells do

A

Controls and regulates the immune system

Stop immune system once a pathogen has been eliminated

Prevents autoimmune disease- when immune system doesn’t recognise self antigens correctly it starts to destroy its own cells/ tissues

141
Q

What do the t helper cells do

A

Activated b lymphocytes at the start of the humoral response

Made in cell mediated immunity

142
Q

Where do b lymphocytes mature

A

In the bone marrow

143
Q

What do b lymphocytes do

A

Divide by mitosis to form cloned B cells that make lots of B memory cells and plasma cells

144
Q

What are the 4 key communication methods

A

Identification- antigen acts as a ID indicating whether it is foreign

Presentation- antigens presented on membranes

Distress signals- pathogen May be placed into the cell surface membrane which tells the t killer lymphocytes to destroy it

Instructions- cytokines released by cells allow communication and coordination between cells

145
Q

What are the two processes interleukins stimulate

A

B cells to divide
Development of t killer cells
Phagocytosis

146
Q

What is the job of an interferon

A

Stimulates t killer cells and inhibits virus replication

147
Q

What is the job of plasma cells

What causes this

A

Produce antibodies

Cytokines

148
Q

Describe the shape of the receptors for cytokines on b lymphocytes

A

Complementary

Activated the mitosis of B lymphocytes

149
Q

What type of lymphocyte is involved with cell mediated immunity

A

T lymphocytes

150
Q

Describe the process of cells mediated immunity

A

1) macrophages engulf and digest pathogens
2) macrophages process antigens from pathogens and present them on their surface
3) some of the t helper cells have receptors that fit the antigen. They become activated (CLONAL SELECTION)
4) cloned T cells formed by (CLONAL EXPANSION)
5) develop into t memory cells or t killer cells
Produce interleukins which stimulates B cells to divide

151
Q

Describe the process of humoral immunity

A

1) antibody on surface of a B cell binds to antigens
B cells processes antigens and presents them on the surface of their cell
2) activated t helper cell bunds to antigens on B cell APC ( CLONAL SELECTION)
3) interleukins produced by activated t helper cell activate B cell
4) activated B cells divide by osmosis (CLONAL EXPANSION)
5) clone cells form plasma or memory cells
6) plasma cells produce antibodies

152
Q

Define CLONAL selection

A

When a T cell or a B cell has a matching receptor to the antigen

153
Q

What is CLONAL expansion

A

When the selected T cell or B cell divided by mitosis to make many clones

154
Q

What type of pathogen does the humoral response involve

A

B lymphocytes

155
Q

What does the humoral system produce

A

Antibodies

156
Q

How do each of the following help the fight of pathogens
Macrophages
Plasma cell
Killer T Cells

A

Macrophages Engulf and digest pathogens
Plasma cells produce antibodies
Killer T cells produce h-peroxide and preforin

157
Q

What response is used for
Intracellular
Extra cellular

A

Intracellular - cell mediated immunity

Extracellular- humoral mediated immunity

158
Q

Define immunity

A

The ability of an organism to resist a particular infection or toxin by the action of specific antibodies or sensitised white blood cells

159
Q

Describe natural active immunity

A

When you meet a pathogen for the first time you produce T + B memory cells

When u meet these again your immune system recognises antigens

Large quantities of the appropriate antibody are made very quickly

160
Q

Describe natural passive immunity

A

Antibodies cross the placenta when the developing foetus is in the uterus
Also passed on in breast milk

161
Q

Describe artificial passive immunity

A

Antibodies are made in one organism, extracted and injected into another organism

Treatment is instant

162
Q

Describe artificial active immunity

A

Vaccination
Small amounts are injected into the blood
Triggers primary immune response
Memory cells are made

163
Q

How does a vaccination work

A

1) contain antigens in vaccine
2) usually injected ( if taken orally could be broken down by enzymes)
3) cause antibody production and memory cells
4) makes u less likely to suffer

164
Q

Define epidemic

A

Where disease is located in a particular area

165
Q

Define pandemic

A

Where a disease is located across continents

166
Q

What happens in an autoimmune disease

A

The immune system stops recognising cells of body as being ‘self’ so attacks its own healthy tissue

167
Q

Why are some of the reasons an autoimmune disease may develop

A

There is a genetic link
Immune system responds abnormally to a mild pathogen
T regulator cells are not working right

168
Q

Name three examples of autoimmune diseases

A

Type 1 diabetes
Rheumatoid arthritis
Lupus

169
Q

What are some of the ways new drugs can be developed

A

Plants, chemicals, microorganisms
Scientists also use computer programmes to design drugs
Genetic engineering- some mammals have been re engineered to produce drug in their milk

170
Q

What is pharmacogenetics

A

Where scientists will look at the patients genome and consider it for any weaknesses

Scientists will look for specific cancer causing genes and treat it with specific drugs

171
Q

What are humans doing that is damaging our potential access to new drugs

A

Deforestation and climate change- species going extinct

172
Q

Name the 5 ways how antibiotics work

A

1) disrupt the cell wall
2) disrupt membranes
3) inhibit protein synthesis
4) inhibit dna/rna processes
5) disrupt metabolism

173
Q

How do animals spread antibiotic resistance

A

They are fed antibiotics- develop resistance in there gut
The meat that is not taken from them may have this resistance on it and when not handled properly bacteria can spread to humans

174
Q

How can a person develop antibiotic resistance

A

Are given antibiotics
Develop resistance in there gut
Spread it to the local comminuty
Or go to hospitals and spread it to patients there

175
Q

Name three causes of antibiotic resistance

A

1) over prescribing antibiotics
2) lack of hygiene
3) lack of new antibiotics developed

A Level: Biology (18 decks)

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