Com Arts Exam #2 Flashcards
the materials used to support a speaker’s ideas. The 3 major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.
supporting materials
make speeches more interesting and convincing. They are sharp and specific, clear and credible
supporting materials
a specific case used to illustrate or represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like
example
a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point (pile them one upon the other until you create the desired impression)
brief example
a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point (tell story vividly and dramatically)
extended example
an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation (speaker creates a realistic scenario, relates it directly to her listeners, and gets them involved in the speech)
hypothetical example
use examples to personalize your ideas, reinforce examples with statistics or testimony, make your examples vivid and richly textured, and practice delivery to enhance your extended examples
tips for using examples
numerical data
statistics
why is it easy to lie with statistics?
they can be easily manipulated and distorted
are the statistics representative? are statistical measures used correctly? and are the statistics from a reliable source?
questions you should ask to judge the reliability of statistics
the average value of a group of numbers
mean
the middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest
median
the number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers
mode
use statistics strategically, identify the sources of your statistics, explain your statistics, round off complicated statistics, and use visual aids to clarify statistical trends
tips for using statistics in speeches
quotations or paraphrases used to support a point
testimony
testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields
expert testimony
testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic
peer testimony
testimony that is presented word for word
direct quotation
to restate or summarize an author’s ideas in one’s own words
paraphrase
quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from the words and phrases surrounding it
quoting out of context
quote or paraphrase accurately, use testimony from qualified sources, use testimony from unbiased sources, and identify the people you quote or paraphrase.
tips for using testimony
the book, magazine, newspaper, or web document you are citing; the author or sponsoring organization of the document; the author’s qualifications with regard to the topic; and the data on which the document was published, posted, or updated.
the pieces of info you must provide when making oral citations in a speech
the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility
ethos
the audience’s perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. The two major factors influencing a speaker’s credibility are competence and character.
credibility
the credibility of a speaker before they start to speak
initial credibility
the credibility of a speaker produced by everything they say and do during the speech
derived credibility
the credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech
terminal credibility
explain your competence, establish common ground with your audience, and deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction
ways to enhance your credibility during speeches
a technique in which a speaker connects themselves with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience
creating common ground
supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
evidence
Persuasive speakers need to use evidence because
most people are skeptical and suspicious of unsupported generalizations. They want speakers to justify their claims.
use specific evidence, use novel evidence, use evidence from credible sources, and make clear the point of your evidence
tips of using evidence effectively
the name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The 2 major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning
logos
the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence
reasoning
reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion
reasoning from specific instances
It is important to supplement reasoning from specific instances with testimony or statistics because
you can never give enough specific instances in a speech to make your conclusion irrefutable, so you should use them to demonstrate that the instances are representative.
reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion. It is the opposite of reasoning from specific instances: it moves from the general to the specific
reasoning from principle
reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects
Causal reasoning
The relationship between causes and effects are not always clear because
the fact that one event happens after another does not mean that the first is the cause of the second; the closeness in time of the 2 events may be entirely coincidental
reasoning in which a speaker compares 2 similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second
analogical reasoning
Analogical reasoning is frequently used in persuasive speeches on questions of policy because
when arguing for a new policy, you should find out whether it has been tried elsewhere—you may be able to claim that your policy will work because it has worked in like circumstances
an error in reasoning
fallacy
hasty generalization, false cause, invalid analogy, bandwagon, red herring, ad hominem, either-or, slippery slope, appeal to tradition, and appeal to novelty
10 logical fallacies
a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence
hasty generalization
a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second
false cause
an analogy in which the 2 cases being compared are not essentially alike
invalid analogy
a fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable
Bandwagon
a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion
Red herring
a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute
Ad hominem
a fallacy that forces listener to choose between 2 alternatives when more than 2 alternatives exist
either-or
a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented
slippery slope
a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new
appeal to tradition
a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old
appeal to novelty
the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal
pathos
The role of emotional appeal in persuasive speaking is intended to
make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent. Want to stir and engage the audience.
use emotional language, develop vivid examples, and speak with sincerity and conviction
methods to generate emotional appeal in speeches
keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation
audience-centeredness
gains a desired response from listeners
why public speakers must be audience-centered
the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being
egocentrism
audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age; religion; racial, ethnic, and cultural background; gender identity and sexual orientation; group membership; and the like
demographic audience analysis
people want to hear about things that are meaningful to them; pay closest attension to messages that affect themselves
audiences are egocentric means…
they mean your listeners will hear and judge what you say on the basis of what they already know and believe; they mean you must relate your message to your listeners–show how it pertains to them, explain why they should care about it as much as you do
implications egocentrism of audiences hold for public speakers
creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike
stereotyping
there is no generation in which everyone thinks alike, buys the same products, or votes for the same political candidates, but each group has common experiences and values that set it apart from other generations; different ages can be targeted by different approaches
demographic trait of audiences: age
there are all different religions around the world; the US is the most racially diverse nation in the world; there is much diversity within faiths; you should consider religious orientations of listeners to avoid embarrassing pitfalls–can determine success of a speech
demographic trait of audiences: religion
people have different races and backrgounds from all over the US and it is important to be sensitive to these; address people from other countries as well; ability to communicate with people of different cultural backgrounds is important; listeners may have different racial, ethnic, or cultural perspectives that affect their attitudes towards the topic; adjust remarks based on these perspectives
demographic trait of audiences: racial, ethnic, and cultural background
attitudes about gender identity and sexual orientation have changed; include those who don’t identify by steriotypical gender roles; avoid any excluding of these people, even if unintentional
demographic trait of audiences: gender identity and sexual orientation
group affiliations provide clues about listeners’ interests and attitudes
demographic trait of audiences: group membership
audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition of the audience towards the topic, the speaker, and the occasion
situational audience analysis
a frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc
attitude
questions that offer a fixed choice between 2 or more alternatives
- ex: do you know what gerrymandering is in the US political system?
fixed-alternative questions
questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers
- ex: how often do you believe state legislatures engage in gerrymandering? (very seldom–> very often)
scale questions
questions that allow respondents to answer however they want
- ex: what is your opinion about gerrymandering in politics?
open-ended questions
what are the 3 major types of questions to choose from when developing an audience-analysis questionnaire?
fixed-alternative questions, scale questions, and open-ended questions
know more about their knowledge and attitudes on specific topic; provide info about classroom audience; give practice in developing the skills of audience analysis
audience-analysis questionnaire
- plan the questionnaire carefully to elicit precisely the info you need
- use all 3 types of questions
- make sure the questions are clear and ambiguous
- make questionnaire relatively brief
audience-analysis questionnaires guidelines
why should you use all 3 kinds of questions in an audience analysis?
because each questions have advantages and disadvantages; using all 3 elicits specific info about the audience and probes deeper into their attitudes toward the speech topic
- assessing how your audience is likely to respond to what you have to say in your speech
- adjusting what you say to make it as clear, appropriate, and convincing as possible
methods to use to adapt speech to the audience before the speech
if there are unpredictable circumstances, find another way to present visual aids, mofidy introduction, adjust delivery to audience size, condense speech, keep an eye out for audience feedback
methods to use to adapt speech to the audience during the speech
Speeeches outside the classroom: by asking the person who invites you to speak.
Classroom speaches: by observation and conversation.
how to get info about the audience
the literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase
denotative meaning
the meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase
connotative meaning
_____ gives words their intensity abd emotional power, _____ is precise and objective.
connotative meaning; denotative meaning
use ____ for dictionary definition
- ex: “school” means place, institution, or building where instruction is given
denotative meaning
use ______ for suggesting or implying
- ex: “school” includes the feelings/emotions/associations that are different for individual people (personal growth or frustration)
connotative meaning
how does language help create our sense of reality?
by giving meaning to events; words we use to label an event determine how we respond to it
a book of synonyms
thesaurus
- use familiar words
- choose concrete words
- eliminate clutter
3 methods public speakers can use to help ensure that their language will be clear to listeners
words that refer to tangible objects
concrete words
words that refer to ideas or concepts
abstract words
discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea
clutter
2 ways to bring speeches to life with vivid, animated language
imagery and rhythm
speakers can make their ideas come alive and think about ways to use the rythm and slow of language to enhance the meaning.
how can speakers use imagery and rhythm to help bring their ideas to life?
speakers use concrete words (can call up mental impressions of sights, sounds, touch, smell, and taste; create images that pull us irresistibly into the speech; ex: “the air was filled with the crack of rifle fire”), simile (comparison using “like” or “as”; ex: walking into my home was like being wrapped in a security blanket), and metaphor (comparison not using “like” or “as”; ex: a pandemic is a marathon, not a sprint)
3 key ways speaker can generate imagery
speakers use parallelism (arrangement of a series of words; ex: rich and poor, intelligent and ignorant, wise and foolish, man and woman…), repetition (creates strong emotional effect by reiterating words at the beginning or end of sentences; ex: here is the price of freedom, here is the price of independence), alliteration (repeating initial consonant sound of words; highlights the sound of words; ex: accomplished without cooperation, compromise, and common cause), and antithesis (juxtaposition of contrasting ideas; ex: ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country)
4 basic devices for enhancing the rhythm of a speech
the use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas
imagery
an explicit comparison, introduced with the word “like” or “as”, between things that are essentially different yet have something in common
simile
a trite or overused expression
cliché
an implicit comparison, not introduced with the word “like” or “as”, between 2 things that are essentially different yet have something in common
metaphor
the pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words
rhythm
the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences
parallelism
reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences
repetition
repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words
alliteration
the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure
antithesis
language should be appropriate to the occasion, audience, topic, and speaker; develop eyour own language style instead of trying to copy someone else’s
language appropriateness/ inclusive language
respectful of different groups that make up American society; respectful and use courtesy
inclusive language
the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s beliefs or actions
persuasion
the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech
mental dialogue with the audience
this is when a speaker must anticipate what the audience will think/believe about the speech and deal with their skepticism; put yourself in the audience’s shoes and address possible problems before speaking
mental dialogue with speakers and how to be effective
the objective is more ambitious than speaking to inform and audience analysis/adaptation is more demanding; controversial topics can increase resistence to persuasion which is more difficult; different viewpoints can be hard to change;
the differences between an informative speech and a persuasive speech; why persuasive speech is more challenging
the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade
target audience
what is the target audience for persuasive speech?
those whose opinions can possibly be changed (not those very opposed, not those who complretely agree, but in the middle)
a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion;
persuasive speaker would draw a conclusion from the known facts and try to convert listeners to their point of view
ex: can be answered–what college bball team has won the most games since 2000
ex: can’t be answered absolutely–did the defendent commit the crime?
ex of SPS: to persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 or above on the Richter scale will hit Cali in the next 10 years
question of fact
a question about the worth, rightness, morality. and so forth of an idea or action;
must justify your claim after answering the question (ex: relatively inexpensive)
ex: is it morally justifiable to keep prisoners in solitary confinement for extended periods of time?
ex of SPS: to persuade my audience that bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation
questions of value
a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken;
always go beyond questions of fact or value to decide whether something “should” or “should not”;
ex: what measures should be taken to protect people’s privacy?;
include speeches to gain passive agreement/ immediate action;
ex of SPS: problem-solution, problem-cause-solution, comparative advantages, or Monroe’s motivated sequence
question of policy
a persuasive speech in which the speaker’s goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy
ex: to persuade my audience that there should be stricter privacy standards on companies that offer…
speech to gain passive agreement
a persuasive speech in which the speaker’s goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy
ex: to persuade my audience to donate to the Wounded Warrior Project
speech to gain immediate action
in ________ you want the audience to agree but not necissarily take action, in ______ you want to motivate them to take action;
*action reinforces belief
speech to gain passive agreement; speech to gain immediate action
the FIRST basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?
burden of proof always rests with the speaker who advocates change
ex: is there a need for more student parking on campus?
need
the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary
burden of proof
the SECOND basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: if there is a problem with the current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
ex: what can we do to get more student parking on campus?/ 4 step plan
plan
the THIRD basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker’s plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?;
must be prepared to show it is workable
ex: building a multilevel parking garage on campus would provide more student parking, but the cost would require a sharp increase in tuition
practicality
How much of your speech should you devote to need, to plan, and to practicality?
Depends on topic and audience: if audience is unaware of problem–> more time to need. if audience is familiar–> remind them of need and devote most of speech to plan and practicality
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem
ex of SPS: to persuade my audience that the US Congress should pass legalization that will reduce lead levels in the nation’s water supply
problem-solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem
ex of SPS: to persuade my audience that action is required to deal with the problem of childhood obesity.
problem-cause-solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker’s solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions
ex of SPS: to persuade my audience that our city should build a rapid bus system instead of a new highway
comparative advantages order
a method of organizing persuasive peeches that seeks immediate action. the 5 steps of the motivated sequence are attension, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.
Considered valuable in speeches that seek immediate action because it is more detailed and leads the listener step by step to the desired action
ex of SPS: to persuade my audience to take class notes by hand instead of on a computer
Monroe’s motivated sequence
to pay tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea; to inspire people–to arouse and heighten their appreciation of or admiration for the person, institution, or idea you are praising; to express feelings
fundemental purpose of a commemorative speech
a speech that pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea
commemorative speech
using simile, parallelism, repetition, antithesis, alliteration, vivid language; it make the speech more powerful; by using language imaginitively you can invest the occasion with dignity, meaning, and honest emotion
why a successful commemorative speech depends on the creative/subtle use of language
