Cognitive 6-10 Flashcards
Anterograde amnesia
problems remembering new information after memory loss
Retrograde amnesia
problems remembering old information from before memory loss
Types of LTM
PROCEDURAL (Implicit), SEMANTIC and EPISODIC (declarative/explicit)
What are the two types of declarative ltm?
Episodic and Semantic
What does episodic memory entail?
events
what does semantic memory entail?
objects, word meanings, facts, people
How doe we know episodic and semantic memories are separate?
patients with amnesia often forget events but have less problems remembering meaningful info
why is episodic memory prone to errors and illusions?
- too many resources needed to produce a permanent memory
- we usually access the gist not the full details
- constructive processes involved in episodic memory related to prediction (forming future plans)
How is episodic memory studied?
-recalling (tell me about..’) and recognising tasks (‘did you study ballet’)
How is semantic memory organised?
Hierarchal Networks:
- concepts are represented as nodes
- Features are associated with each concept
- Each concept possesses features of higher level concepts in addition to its own features
What is Hierarchal Distance Effect
Sentences should take more time to process as the number of levels between the tested concept and specific features increases
Describe the three models to semantic memory
- Network models-hierarchal networks
- Feature models-feature-based categories
- Simulation models-previously accumulate embodied experiences
What is procedural memory
memory of learned skills
does not involve conscious recollection; reveals itself through behaviour
Define priming/repetition priming (procedural memory)
- increased sensitivity to a stimulus due to prior exposure
- a way of accessing implicit memory
- priming is often preserved in amnesic patients with impaired declarative knowledge
Perceptual priming (procedural memory)
repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to facilitated processing of its perceptual features (similarity in looks)
Conceptual priming (procedural memory)
repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to facilitated processing of its meaning (what it does)
prosodic cues in speech
pitch
tone
stress
SPEECH IS MORE AMBIGUOUS THAN TEXT
cues in text
punctuation
MAY BE AMBIGUOUS
what are the domains of psycholinguistics
Acquisition
Comprehension
Production
levels of representation for PRODUCTION of speech
- SEMANTIC:meaning of words
- SYNTAX: does it make sense
- LEXICON:word to use
- PHONOLOGY:sound it out
levels of representation for COMPREHENSION of speech
- PHONOLOGY:sound it out
- LEXICON:words used
- SYNTAX:does it make sense
- SEMANTIC:meaning of words
what does language in cognitive science include? 3 points that interact
psychology - linguistics - neuroscience
ways of measuring features of reading
- lexical decision tasks (is WUG a word?)
- naming task
- eye-tracking
- priming
- neuroimaging
models of phonology in reading
WEAK PHONOLOGICAL MODEL- phonology IS NOT necessary when reading and understanding meaning
STRONG PHONOLOGICAL MODEL- phonology IS necessary when reading understanding meaning
what is support for weak phonological model?
people with Phonological Dyslexia know the MEANING of word but can’t PRONOUNCE it so pronunciation is independent from meaning of words
what is the support for strong phonological model?
people made mistakes on homophones (sound the same) so phonological processing took place
when is phonological processing necessary?
- with low-frequency words
- poor readers
How does word processing occur? (holistic)
-we recognise the whole word all at once
what are speech processing stages
- Phoneme identification
- syllable identification
- word identification
- utterance comprehension
- meaning integration
what is segmentation?
difficulty separating words due to the continuous nature of speech
what may help segmentation?
- possible word constraints:syllables that never appear in a word together in English
- syllabic stress:first syllable is always stressed
differences between speech and sentence processing
SPEECH requires LOW-level processes but SENTENCE processing requires HIGH-level
pragmatics
studying how we understand INTENDED meaning
PARSING
processing of building an interpretation of a sentence
parser
person making sense on the sentence
parse
temporarily built interpretation
global-level ambiguities
-more than one interpretation for the whole sentence
local ambiguities
many initial interpretations but when sentence is known, only one interpretation remains
garden-path sentences
committing to a wrong interpretation of the sentence but later sentence reaches committed interpretation
serial model of sentence processing
- SYNTAX->MEANING (arrange words to make a meaning then go back if meaning isn’t correct)
- many stages
- deterministic
parallel model of sentence processing
- SYNTAX and MEANING occur at the same time while reading
- one stage
evidence for serial model of sentence processing
people took longer to understand a garden-path sentence because of going over sentence more than once
evidence for parallel model of sentence processing
people took longer to read a sentence that didn’t make sense showing that understanding is happening during reading
strength of serial model of sentence processing
-minimal set of principles
disadvantage of serial model of sentence processing
- context can influence interpretation early
- doesn’t account for language difference
- not flexible/deterministic
strength of parallel model of sentence processing
-use all relevant information for quick interpretation
disadvantage of parallel model of sentence processing
- doesn’t apply to complex sentences
- hardly ever FULLY parallel
how does schemas affect discourse?
having an idea of the context can allow connected sentences to make sense
what is discourse?
connecting several sentences
explain results of Brewer and Treyens research into Schema relating to sentence processing
participants remembered more schema consistent objects, that weren’t in the office.
-falsely remembered items that were there as they EXPECTED them to be there
weakness of schemas to explain sentence processing
- too abstract
- some schemas are untestable
- dont know when and why we activate our schemas
strength of schemas to explain sentence processing
-aids text comprehension
describe the good enough model of sentence processing
- understanding only needs to be good enough
- heuristics are applied to speed up/simplify interpretaion
describe the 2 parts of the parallel model of sentence processing
MANY interpretations are used
-CONTEXT is applied asap to gain quick understanding
sentence production
study that is interested in how people select between available options when they produce sentences
how doe produce speech?
- speaking or writing
- monologue/dialogue/multilogue
- things we perceive(in the moment) or that are displaced(memories)
- 3 words per second, <1 error per 1000 words
what is the difference between speech production and speech comprehension
- comprehension is active:can predict what people/measurable
- Production is passive: hard to predict what people will say/more variable/production is always from scratch
models of speech production have 3 stages in common. what are they?
- CONCEPTUALIZATION:speaker forms idea about what they want to say
- FORMULATION:speaker selects word and arranges them syntatically
- ARTICULATION:speaker uses motor programs for overt articulation
name the general models of speech production
- MODULAR vs INTERACTIVE
- HOLISTIC vs INCREMENTAL
- SERIAL vs PARALLEL
what is the evidence for speech production?
evidence comes from speech errors
what do speech errors inform us about?
- categories of speech that are affected (phoneme/words/phrases)
- how far ahead people plan their sentences (word exchanges)
most common speech errors
word-exchange errors
phoneme errors
what are the predictions of SERIAL MODEL OF SPEECH PRODUCTION
CLOSED production system and all stages are INDEPENDENT from each other (message, lemma, assembly)
FROMKIN’S 5 stages of speech production (serial model)
- MESSAGE
- SYNTAX (WORD ORDER)
- INTONATION
- WORD SELECTION (component and function)
- PHONOLOGY
LEVELT’S 3 stages of speech production (serial model)
- MESSAGE
- Lemma and Assembly (WORDS TO USE AND ORDER)
- ARTICULATION
evidence for serial model of speech production
limited class exchanges units are often exchanged which the same units which suggests that each stage is separate
what are the predictions of PARALLEL MODEL OF SPEECH PRODUCTION
OPEN production system; stages AREN’T INDEPENDENT SO EACH STAGE CAN affect EACH OTHER
Describe the Spreading Activation Model of speech production (parallel model) produced by Dell
- PARALLEL AND INTERACTIVE:stages work together
- INSERTION RULES:items are selected based on their activation level
- CATEGORICAL RULES:interaction between stages is determined by interaction rules
what is the supporting evidence for parallel models of speech production?
- MIXED ERRORS shows INTERACTION between stages: saying one thing while meaning another
- ANTICIPATION ERRORS:a unit occurs in the right place but earlier in the utterance showing they had PLANNED to say a certain word
WHAT IS THE EVALUATION FOR BOTH SENTENCE PRODUCTION MODELS
- much of existing evidence supports the serial model of speech production BUT there are still holes
- it may be that serial and parallel models work together depending on the features of the context
what is Broca’s aphasia
NON-FLUENT speech but make sense
-intact speech comprehension BUT problems with speech production
what is Wernicke’s aphasia
FLUENT speech but lacks meaning
-problems with speech comprehension BUT intact speech production
other types of aphasia
- ANOMIA=an impaired ability to NAME objects (PROBLEMS WITH LEMMA IN LEVELT’S THEORY)
- JARGON APHASIA=speech grammatically but use made-up words; have problems with severe problems with comprehension
evidence from aphasia evaluated
patients with aphasia often have problems with one part of speech but not another which suggests stages of speech are separate
what are the similarities between speaking and writing
- planning the concept
- combination of linguistic stages
- patients with aphasia have deficits in both speaking and writing
5 differences between reading and writing
- speaking is 5 times faster than writing
- speakers have less planning time
- easier to repair writing
- prose is important in speaking than writing
processes in writing
- planning (ideas)
- sentence generation (produce sentences)
- revision (revising what has been writing)
processes in planning to write
- CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE:info about concept
- SOCIO-CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE:info about social background
- METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE:info of the meaning
what do we know about sentence generation
- gap between planning and actual writing of sentences is BIGGER in writing than in speaking
- there are individual differences in writing (experts use more words than average writers)
what do we know about sentence revision
- expert writers devote more time to revising than non-experts
- experienced writers are more concerned with meaning and coherence
two-route model of spelling
LEXICAL ROUTE:accessing detailed information about the word:-used for familiar words
NON-LEXICAL ROUTE:converting sounds into letters:-used for unfamiliar words
evidence for the two-route model: lexical and non-lexical routes of spelling
Phonological Dysgraphia have problems spelling unfamiliar words due to damage to non-lexical route
Surface Dsygraphia have problems spelling familiar words so damage to lexical route
judgements
- how people estimate the likelihood of something happen
- can be right or wrong
decision making
processes involved in deciding on a course of action
no correct decision
Bayes’ theroum
calculates the likelihood of a hypotheses being correct
PRIOR ODDS:before data is obtained
LIKELIHOOD RATIO:data after
what does the Taxi Cab Problem prove about human judgement system
humans only take into account the newest information rather than old
what are heuristics?
judgement strategies that tend to provide a correct solution
representativeness heuristics
more or less likely to happen based on what is typical of an event
availability heuristics
judge based on the frequency of events; what we perceive
support for heuristics
- we used short cuts for decision making
- influences decision-making
disadvantage for heuristics
-cant find a specific area of the brain that calculates heuristics
