Cognition of speech and language

Question 1

What are the organising principles of the neurobiology of speech and language processing?

Answer 1

The principles of speech and language processing include error minimisation, hierarchical organisation and streams of processing.

Question 2

How do we communicate?

Answer 2

There are different ways of communicating including spoken language, facial expression, reading and writing ect. In speech communication, speech chain describers the stages of speech communication whereby a message moves from the speaker’s mind to the listener’s mind. the principles of speech and language processing include error minimisation, streams of processing and hierarchical organisation.

Question 3

Definition of speech chain.

Answer 3

Speech chain describes the stages in speech communication whereby a message moves from speaker’s mind to listener’s mind. When you firstly think of something to say, your brain turns that into a linguistic representation which is when your brain turns your thoughts of things to say into words and when you speak you have facial movements and you get acoustics because sound is a change in air pressure. the principles of speech and language processing include streams of processing, hierarchical organisation and error minimisation.

Question 4

How does spoken communication work?

Answer 4

Speech communication works by speech chain which describes stages of speech communication where a message moves from speaker’s mind to listener’s mind. firstly, when you think of something to say it is turned into words, this is called linguistic representation and when you speak you get acoustics and you cause facial movements. When you speak you get acoustics because sound is changes in air pressure. Also, you get auditory feedback and haptic feedback. Auditory feedback is hearing your own voice when you speak, this is important for making sure your speech production is correct. When you speak you get haptic feedback which is feeling your voice when you speak. This is important for guiding speech production. the 3 principles of speech and language processing include streams of processing, hierarchical organisation and error minimisation.

Question 5

How does speech production work?

Answer 5

Speech production works when you firstly think of something to say, the brain turns your thoughts into words. This is called linguistic representation. Then when you speak you have facial movements and you get acoustics as sound is a change in air pressure. When you speak you get:
- acoustics
- facial movement
- auditory feedback
- haptic feedback
auditory feedback = hearing your voice when you speak.
haptic feedback = feeling your voice when you speak.
Auditory feedback is important for making sure your speech production is correct and haptic feedback is important for guiding speech production.

Question 6

What does the brain do when you think of something to say?

Answer 6

When you think of something to say, your brain turns your thoughts of things to say into words, this is called linguistic representation.

Question 7

Definition of linguistic representation.

Answer 7

Logistic representation is the you think of something to say, you brain turns your thoughts of things to say into words.

Question 8

What is sound?

Answer 8

Sound is made up of different tones of different frequencies (pitch) and amplitudes (loudness). You can visualise properties of sound using a spectrogram which is a 2D graph, Y axis is frequency and X axis is time. Sound is changes in air pressure.

Question 9

When you speak what do you produce?

Answer 9

When you speak, you produce acoustics and you make facial movement. When you first think of something to say, you brain turns your thoughts into words this is called linguistic representation which is turning thoughts into words. When you actually speak, You get acoustics and have facial movements. Also, you get auditory feedback which is hearing your voice when your speak. This is important to Make sure your speech production is correct. When you speak, you also get haptic feedback which is feeling your voice when you speak, this is important for guiding speech production.

Question 10

What does hearing your own voice in communication allow?

Answer 10

When you speak, you get auditory feedback which is hearing your voice when you speak, it is important for making sure your speech production is correct and the prediction matches the auditory feedback.

Question 11

What are sounds made up of?

Answer 11

Sounds are made up of different tones of different frequencies (pitch) and amplitudes (loudness). sound is changes in air pressure.

Question 12

Definition of frequency.

Answer 12

Frequency is pitch. Sound is made up of different tones of different frequencies and amplitudes. Amplitude is loudness. sound is changes in air pressure.

Question 13

Definition of amplitude.

Answer 13

Amplitude is loudness. Frequency is pitch. Sound is made up of different tones of different frequencies and amplitudes. sound is a change in air pressure.

Question 14

What can we use a spectrogram for?

Answer 14

Spectrogram is a 2D graph with time on x axis and frequency on y axis. Spectrogram can be used to visualise the properties of sound. On a spectrogram, the darkness of a line represents the loudness of the sound (amplitude). sound is made up of different tones that have different frequencies and amplitudes Sound is a change in air pressure.

Question 15

What can we use to visualise properties of sound?

Answer 15

Sound is made up of different tones of different frequencies (pitch) and amplitudes (loudness). frequencies is pitch and amplitude is loudness. Spectrogram is a 2D graph used to visualise the properties of sound. On the y axis is frequency and on x axis is time. the darkness of a line on a spectrogram represents the loudness of the sound. Sound is a change in air pressure.

Question 16

What is on the x axis on a spectrogram?

Answer 16

Spectrogram is a 2D graph used to visualise the properties of sound. On the x axis is time and y axis is frequency. the darkness of the line on a spectrogram represents the loudness of a sound. Sound is a change in air pressure.

Question 17

What is on the y axis on a spectrogram?

Answer 17

Spectrogram is used to visualise properties of sound, on y axis is frequency and x axis is time. Spectrogram is a 2D graph. The darkness of the line on a spectrogram represents the amplitude of the sound so how loud the sound is. Sound is a change in air pressure.

Question 18

What does the darkness of the lines on a spectrogram indicate?

Answer 18

Spectrorgram is a 2D graph sued to visualise the properties of sound. On Y axis is frequency and X axis is time. Sound is made up of different tones of different frequencies and amplitude. On a spectrogram, the darkness of the line represents the amplitude of the sound so how loud the sound is. sound is made up of different tones that have different frequencies and amplitudes. Sound is a change in air pressure.

Question 19

What is the most simple auditory stimulus that exists?

Answer 19

The most simple auditory stimulus that exists is a single tone. Complex tone is a mix of different tones together.

Question 20

What is a complex tone?

Answer 20

The most simple auditory stimulus that exists is a single tone. When you mix tones you get a complex tone.

Question 21

Where does information firstly go when it arrives to the ears?

Answer 21

When sound stimuli arrives at the ears, it firstly goes to the primary auditory cortex.

Question 22

What is temporal lobe important for?

Answer 22

When sound arrives at the ear it goes to primary auditory cortex first which is the temporal lobe. The temporal lobe is important for hearing and understand speech. Temporal lobe is serrated from other areas of the brain by sylvian fissure. In the Sylvian fissure is the primary auditory cortex which is where sound stimuli goes after reaching ear. the areas that process sound include the superior temporal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus and inferior temporal gyrus.

Question 23

How is the temporal lobe separated from other areas of the brain?

Answer 23

The temporal lobe is key for hearing and understand speech. The temporal lobe is separated from other areas of the brain by the sylvian fissure. Inside the sylvian fissure is the primary auditory cortex which is where sound stimuli firstly goes after reaching ears. The areas of the brain that process sound is inferior temporal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus.

Question 24

What is inside the sylvian fissure?

Answer 24

The temporal lobe is key for understanding and hearing speech. the temporal lobe is separated from other areas of the brain by the sylvian fissure. Inside the sylvian fissure there is the primary auditory cortex which is where sound stimuli goes first when reaching the ear. The areas that process sound include the superior temporal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus and inferior temporal gyrus.

Question 25

What is behind the primary auditory areas?

Answer 25

Behind the primary auditory areas is planum temporale and infront of of primary auditory areas is planum morale.

Question 26

What is infront of primary auditory areas?

Answer 26

In front of primary auditory areas is planum porale and behind primary auditory areas is primary temporale.

Question 27

what areas process sound?

Answer 27

Temporal lobe is key for hearing and understand sound. Temporal lobe is separated from other areas by the sylvian fissure. In the sylvian fissure is the primary auditory cortex which is where sound stimuli goes after reaching ear. The areas of the brain that process sound include superior temporal gyrus, Middle temporal gyrus and inferior temporal gyrus.

Question 28

How can we understand speech processing through brain injury?

Answer 28

We can understand speech processing by studying brain injury, this is helpful because by studying brain injury it allows us to identify areas of the brain that are necessary to perform a task.

Question 29

Why is studying brain injury useful?

Answer 29

When understanding speech processing, we can study brain injury. This is useful to study brain injury because it allows us to identify areas of the brain that are necessary to perform a task.

Question 30

What parts of the brain are involved in production of speech?

Answer 30

The anterior part of the brain is involved in production of speech. This includes the Broca’s area which is the inferior frontal gyrus, this is important for speech production. Whereas the posterior part of the brain is involved in speech perception including the Wernicke’s area which is the superior temporal gyrus which is important for understanding speech.

Question 31

What parts of the brain are involved in perception of speech?

Answer 31

The part of the brain that is involved in perception of speech is the posterior part of the brain. The posterior area of the brain includes the wernicke’s area which is the superior temporal gyrus which is important for understanding speech.

Question 32

What is anterior part of the brain is involved in?

Answer 32

The anterior part of the brain is involved in production of speech including the Broca’s area which is the inferior frontal gyrus which is important for speech production. On the other hand, the posterior part of the brain is involved in perception of speech including the superior temporal gyrus which is the wernickes area which is important for understanding speech.

Question 33

What is posterior part of the brain is involved in?

Answer 33

The posterior part of the brain is involved in perception of speech which includes the wenickes area which is the superior temporal gyrus which is important for understanding speech. But the anterior part of the brain is involved in production of speech and includes the Broca’s area which is the inferior frontal gyrus which is important for speech production.

Question 34

How can we understand speech processing?

Answer 34

One way of understanding speech processing, is by studying brain injury. This is useful as it allows us to identify areas of the brain that are necessary to perform a task. Another way of understanding speech processing is animal studies. Understanding speech processing using animal studies is good because it allows us to use invasive techniques and do post-mortem easier.

Question 35

Why is studying animals good for understanding speech processing?

Answer 35

Studying animals is good for understanding speech processing because it allows us to use invasive techniques and do post-mortem easier. Also another way of understanding speech processing is by studying brain injury, this is good because it allows us to identify areas of the brain that are necessary to perform a task..

Question 36

What are the advantages of Functional Brain imaging?

Answer 36

Functional brain imaging is not invasive and can be done on humans. Functional brain imaging allows us to record brain responses non-invasively and in real time.

fMRI or functional magnetic resonance imaging has high spatial resolution and poor timing. Functional magnetic resonance imaging detects changes in oxygenated blood levels. Activated areas need more oxygen. There is a peak in oxygenation 4-6 seconds after an event.

Question 37

What does functional brain imaging allow us to do?

Answer 37

Functional brain imaging is non-invasive and can be done on humans. Functional brain imaging allows us to record brain responses in real time.

Whereas, fMRI is functional magnetic resonance imaging. It has high spatial resolution and poor timing. Functional magnetic resonance imaging detects changes in oxygenated blood levels - activated areas need more oxygen.

Question 38

What are the advantages and disadvantages of fMRI?

Answer 38

Functional magnetic resonance imaging is good because it has high spatial resolution but poor timing.

Question 39

What is fMRI?

Answer 39

fMRI is functional magnetic resonance imaging. Functional brain imaging allows us to record brain responses non-invasively and in real time on human brains. Whereas fMRI is functional magnet resonance imaging has high spatial resolution and poor time.

Question 40

What does functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) detect?

Answer 40

fMRI is functional magnetic resonance imaging. It is good because it has high spatial resolution but poor timing. fMRI detects changes in oxygenated blood levels - activated areas need more oxygen. There is a peak in oxygenation 4-6 seconds after event.

Functional brain imaging allows us to record brain responses in human brains non-invasively and in real time.

Question 41

What are cognitive processes made up of?

Answer 41

Cognitive processes are made up of stages/components. If we want to find out about one component of a cognitive process we can do subtraction, this works by subtracting brain activity in one task from another task.

Question 42

What do we do if we only want to know about one component of a cognitive process?

Answer 42

Cognitive processes are made up of many stages/components. If you only want to know about on component/stage in a cognitive process. You do subtraction, which means subtracting brain activity in one task from another task.

Question 43

What does primary auditory cortex respond to?

Answer 43

.Primary auditory cortex responds to both simple tones and complex tones so a mix of different tones. surrounding areas of superior temporal gyrus only respond to complex tones.

Question 44

What does surrounding areas respond to?

Answer 44

Surrounding areas of superior temporal gyrus respond to only complex tones. But, primary auditory cortex respond to both simple tones and complex tones.

Question 45

What areas causes problems in understanding speech if damaged?

Answer 45

Damage to the Wernicke’s area so middle and superior temporal gyrus causes problems in understanding speech.

Question 46

If the superior and middle temporal gyrus is damaged what problems does it causes?

Answer 46

Damage to superior and middle temporal gyrus causes problems with understand speech so damage to Wernicke’s area causes problems with understanding speech.

Question 47

How do you understand speech production?

Answer 47

There are different ways to understanding speech production including functional brain imaging and combing different approaches together including overt speech production (aloud), covert speech production (client) and manipulation of auditory/haptic feedback.

Question 48

What is one approach to studying speech production?

Answer 48

One process for studying speech production is functional brain imaging and another way is combining different methods together including covert speech production which is not speaking out loud. Overt speech production which is speaking out loud and manipulation of auditory feedback which is manipulating auditory or haptic feedback in speech production. Also, you combine manipulation of auditory feedback which is when you manipulate either the auditory feedback which is when you hear your voice when your speaking or haptic feedback which is when you feel your voice when your speaking. An example of manipulation of auditory feedback is delay auditory feedback which is when you ask someone to speak and you play it back to them at a delay, the larger the delay the more brain activity in the superior temporal gyrus.

Question 49

what are the 3 approaches that are combined to study speech production?

Answer 49

There are 3 approaches that are combined to understand speech production including:

• covert (silent) speech production = which is speaking silently. Covert speech production is good because it removes haptic feedback and auditory feedback. Covert speech production is bad because is covert speech production process the same as the process for covert speech production.
• overt (aloud) speech production = is speaking out loud. Overt speech production is bad because you are not recording brain activity of speech production alone as you are also recording haptic feedback so feeling your voice when you speak and auditory feedback which is hearing your voice when you speak.
• manipulation of auditory feedback = which is when you manipulate feedback, either haptic feedback or auditory feedback. An example of manipulation of auditory feedback is delay auditory feedback which is when you ask someone to speak and you play it back to them at a delay, the larger the delay the more brain activity in the superior temporal gyrus.

So to understand speech production, you combine 3 techniques together including covert speech production, overt speech production and manipulation of auditory feedback. Covert speech production, overt speech production and manipulation of auditory feedback all come under error minimisation.

Question 50

Why is covert speech production good?

Answer 50

Covert speech production is good for studying speech production is that because in covert speech production your not speaking out loud so you don’t get auditory feedback or haptic feedback. Auditory feedback is hearing your own voice when you speak and haptic feedback is feeling your voice when you speak. Covert speech production is bad because is the process of covert speech production the same as overt speech production. Covert speech production, overt speech production and manipulation of auditory feedback all come under error minimisation.

Question 51

Why is covert speech production bad?

Answer 51

Covert (silent) speech production is bad because is the process of covert speech production the same as the overt (aloud) speech production process. Covert speech production is good because it allows you too study speech production without auditory feedback and haptic feedback. Auditory feedback is hearing your own voice when you speak and haptic feedback is feeling your voice when you speak.

Covert speech production, overt speech production and manipulation of auditory feedback all come under error minimisation.

Question 52

What is bad about overt speech production?

Answer 52

Overt speech production is speaking out loud. It is bad because you are not just recording brain activity of speech production but also haptic feedback and auditory feedback.

Covert speech production is not speaking out loud. It is good because you are not recording brain activity of haptic feedback which is feeling your voice when you speak and auditory feedback which is hearing your voice when you speak.

Manipulation of auditory feedback, overt speech production and covert speech production come under error minimisation.

Question 53

Definition of manipulation of auditory feedback.

Answer 53

Manipulation of auditory feedback is manipulating feedback, either auditory feedback which is hearing your voice when you speak or haptic feedback which is feeling your voice when you speak.
Manipulation of auditory feedback, covert speech production and overt speech production are combined together to study speech production. These three approaches come under error minimisation.

Question 54

What are two important areas?

Answer 54

The two important areas are the Wernicke’s area which is the superior temporal gyrus and Broca’s area which is the inferior frontal gyrus. Wernicke’s area is important for understanding speech. Broca’s are is important for speech production.

Question 55

What is Wernicke’s area?

Answer 55

Wernicke’s area is supior temporal gyrus. Wernicke’s area is important for understand speech. Whereas Broca area is inferior frontal gyrus which is important for production of speech as the inferior frontal gyrus is activated when you produce speech. So Wernicke’s area is the superior temporal gyrus which is important for understanding speech. But Broca area is the inferior frontal gyrus which is important for speech production. So the superior temporal gyrus is important for understanding speech but the inferior frontal gyrus is important for speech production. The superior temporal gyrus is the Wernicke’s area and the inferior frontal gyrus is the Broca’s area.

Question 56

What is Broca area?

Answer 56

The Broca area is the inferior frontal gyrus which is important for speech production. But the wernicke’s area is the superior temporal gyrus which is important for understanding speech.

Question 57

What happens when we produce speech out loud?

Answer 57

When we speak and we hear our voice normally, so the prediction matches the auditory feedback, there is a decrease in prediction error and brain activity is suppressed.

When we speak silently, we increase prediction errors and superior temporal gyrus is activated because we expect to hear our voice but we don’t/

Question 58

What does superior temporal gyrus contain?

Answer 58

Superior temporal gyrus contains auditory targets which is how words should sound for speech production. Motor cortex sends a motor command and prediction about how the word should sound to be matched with auditory target in superior temporal gyrus. prediction is compared with auditory feedback if they are different error signal is sent to the motor cortex.

Question 59

What does motor cortex do?

Answer 59

Superior temporal gyrus contains auditory target for speech production. Which is what the words should sound like. Motor cortex sends motor command and prediction about how the words should sound to be matched with auditory target in superior temporal gyrus. Prediction is compared with auditory feedback. if the prediction and auditory feedback are different an error signal is sent to motor cortex.

Question 60

What happens if the prediction and the sound coming out of your mouth is not the same?

Answer 60

When we speak and hear our voice normally, so when prediction matches the auditory feedback there is a decrease in prediction error and brain activity is suppressed.

When the prediction and sound coming of your mouth is not the same so the prediction and auditory feedback is not the same, error signal is sent to motor cortex.

Question 61

Describe the role of prediction error in speech production

Answer 61

Superior temporal gyrus contains auditory target which is how the words should sound in speech production. Motor cortex sends motor command and prediction about how the word should sound to be matched with auditory target in the superior temporal gyrus. Prediction is compared with auditory feedback. If the prediction from motor cortex and auditory feedback is different an error signal is sent to motor cortex.

Question 62

Why is error signal useful?

Answer 62

Error signal is sent to motor cortex when prediction from motor cortex matched with auditory target in superior temporal gyrus is different from auditory feedback which is hearing your voice when you speak. Error signal is useful for future speech production.

Question 63

What can we discover by manipulating how people speak?

Answer 63

When we manipulate how people speak, we discover the prediction error mechanism.

Question 64

Why is studying speech production hard?

Answer 64

Studying speech production is hard because when you speak you do not just report brain activity from speaking but also auditory feedback and haptic feedback. So you can do covert speech production which allows you to record brain activity without haptic feedback and auditory feedback but is the process of covert speech production the same as overt speech production process.

Question 65

How do you study speech processing and how does it differ from studying speech production?

Answer 65

When you study speech processing, you study on brain injury patient because it helps to identify areas necessary to perform a task. To study speech processing you study on animals also because it allows you do invasive techniques and study post-mortem easier.
But when you study speech production, you do functional brain imaging which is recording brain activity non-invasively on human brains in real time. Also, another technique for studying speech production is combing different techniques including covert speech production, overt speech production and manipulation of auditory feedback.

Question 66

When is there an increase in prediction error?

Answer 66

there is an increase in prediction error when we speak sliently (covert) this is because we expect to her our voice when we speak but we don’t. The superior temporal gyrus is activated when we speak silently. There is also an increase in prediction error when there is a delay in our speech due to delay auditory feedback this is because our prediction and auditory feedback are not the same.

Question 67

When is there a decrease in prediction error?

Answer 67

There is a decrease in prediction error when we speak aloud and we hear our voice normally - so when our prediction matches our auditory feedback. This decreases the prediction error and suppresses brain activity.

Question 68

What happens when we produce speech and our voice is altered by delayed feedback.

Answer 68

When we produce speech and it is delayed due to delay auditory feedback. This causes prediction error to increase because our prediction and auditory feedback is different. We also have an increased prediction error when we produce speech silently because our brain expects to hear our voice and superior temporal gyrus is activated.

Question 69

What is posterior area of the brain known as?

Answer 69

Posterior area includes the wenickes which is the superior temporal gyrus. The posterior area is important for understanding speech. The posterior area of the brain is known as the posterior how/where stream. Whereas the anterior part of the brain is important for speech production. Anterior part of brain includes the Broca’s area which includes the inferior frontal gyrus which is important for speech production. Anterior part of brain is called the anterior what stream and it is hierarchically organised.

Question 70

What is anterior area of brain known as?

Answer 70

Anterior part of the brain is important for speech production and it is called the anterior what stream and anterior area of brain includes the Broca’s area which includes the inferior frontal gyrus which is important for speech production. Anterior what stream is hierarchically organised. When producing speech inferior frontal gyrus is activated.

Posterior part of brain is important for understanding speech. Posterior part of brain includes the wenickes area which includes the superior temporal gyrus which is important for comprehending speech. Posterior area of the brain is called the posterior how/where stream.

Question 71

What is activated when we produce speech?

Answer 71

When we produce speech, the inferior frontal gyrus is activated because the inferior frontal gyrus is the Broca’s area which is important for speech production.

Question 72

What is the dual stream models of spoken language?

Answer 72

Dual stream models of spoken language includes the anterior what stream which is important for speech production and includes the Broca area which is the inferior frontal gyrus. Anterior area of brain or the anterior what stream is hierarchically organised. Dual stream models of spoken language also includes the posterior where/how stream which is important for understanding speech and includes the wenickes area which is important for comprehending speech. The wenickes area includes the superior temporal gyrus whereas the broca area in the anterior what stream includes the inferior frontal gyrus.

Question 73

What did a study on macaque monkeys find?

Answer 73

A study on macaque monkeys found that there are 3 distinct areas of the brain including the core, belt and parabelt

Question 74

Why is studying speech production hard?

Answer 74

Studying speech production is hard because you don’t just get brain activity from acoustics and facial movements but you also get brain activity from hearing your own voice when you speak (auditory feedback) and feeling your own voice when you speak (haptic feedback).

Question 75

What happens in covert speech production?

Answer 75

In covert speech production, the Wernickes area is activated. In overt speech production, brain activity is suppressed.

Question 76

What happens in overt speech production

Answer 76

In overt speech production, brain activity is suppressed. but in covert speech production, the wernickes area is activated

Question 77

What is delay auditory feedback?

Answer 77

delay auditory feedback is a type of manipulation of auditory feedback, it is when you ask someone to ask and you play it back to them at a delay. The bigger the delay, the more brain activity in the superior temporal gyrus (Wernickes area) because there is an increase in prediction error as your prediction does not match auditory feedback.