Cognition, Consciousness, & Language

Question 1

What theory states that visual images & verbal associations are used to process & store info ?

Answer 1

Paivio’s dual-coding theory

Question 2

What are the 4 key components of the info processing model ?

Answer 2

1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, & storage of stimuli
2. Stimuli must be analyzed by brain to be useful in decision making
3. Decisions made in one instance can be used to solve new problems (situational modification)
4. Problem solving is dependent on cognitive level, context, and complexity of problem

Question 3

What is the difference between assimilation & accommodation ?

Answer 3

Assimilation = incorporating new info into existing schemata 
Accommodation = modifying existing schemata to encompass new info
*Schemata = organized patterns of thoughts & behaviors

Question 4

What does stage 1 (sensorimotor) of Piaget’s model encompass ?

Answer 4

0-2 yrs
Child learns to manipulate environment to meet needs & match sensory input w/ motor actions
Exhibit circular reactions
-Primary: repetition of body movements that occured by chance (soothing)
-Secondary: manipulation focused on outside the body (attention)

Question 5

What milestone essentially ends the sensorimotor stage ?

Answer 5

Object permanence: things still exist even out of view

Marks beginning of representational thought

Question 6

What does stage 2 (preoperational) of Piaget’s model encompass ?

Answer 6

2-7 yrs
Characterized by:
-Symbolic thinking: refers to pretending & imagination
-Egocentrism: inability to imagine what others are thinking/feeling
-Inability to grasp conservation (amount is same regardless of form)—> due to centration: tendency to focus on only 1 aspect of a phenomena

Question 7

What does stage 3 (concrete operational) of Piaget’s model encompass ?

Answer 7

7-11 yrs

Children understand conservation & consider others’ perspectives (loss of egocentrism)

Question 8

What does stage 4 (formal operational) of Piaget’s model encompass ?

Answer 8

11 yrs

Able to think logically & abstractly (can engage in hypothetical reasoning)

Question 9

The idea that culture is a prominent driving force of cognitive development in children was coined by ?

Answer 9

Lev Vygotsky

Question 10

What is the difference between fluid & crystallized intelligence ?

Answer 10

Fluid = consists of solving new problems (can be creative)
Crystallized = consists of solving problems using acquired knowledge (can be procedural)

Question 11

A rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible & caused by medical causes is known as ?

Answer 11

Delirium

Question 12

The tendency to approach similar problems in the same way is known as ?

Answer 12

Mental set

Question 13

The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner is known as ?

Answer 13

Functional fixedness

Question 14

A formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem is known as ?

Answer 14

Algorithm

Question 15

Reasoning that starts w/ a set of general rules, then draws conclusion from the info given is known as ?

Answer 15

Deductive (top-down) reasoning

Question 16

Reasoning that seeks to create a theory based on generalizations is known as ?

Answer 16

Inductive reasoning (bottom-up)

Question 17

Simplified principles that are used to make decisions (“rules of thumb”) are known as ?

Answer 17

Heuristics

• Availability heuristic: used to base likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind
• Representativeness heuristic: categorizes items on basis of prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category

Question 18

Using prototypical/stereotypical factors while ignoring the actual numerical info is called ?

Answer 18

Base rate fallacy

Question 19

The tendency to focus on info that fits an individual’s beliefs while rejecting info that goes against them is known as ?

Answer 19

Confirmation bias

*contributes to overconfidence

Question 20

The tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of past events is known as ?

Answer 20

Hindsight bias

*Similar to belief perseverance: inability to reject a belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

Question 21

What is the formula for calculating IQ?

Answer 21

IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100

Question 22

A state of consciousness in which we are awake & able to think is known as ?

Answer 22

Alertness (experience physiological arousal)

Question 23

What is the best tool to use to study brain wave activity while asleep ?

Answer 23

EEG: records average electrical patterns within different portions of the brain

Question 24

What are the different EEG patterns that correlate to waking & sleeping

Answer 24

Beta: alert & awake
Alpha: awake, but resting w/ eyes closed
Theta (Stage 1 NREM): Doze off
Theta (Stage 2 NREM): More deeply asleep; form sleep spindles (high f waves) & k complexes (single high amp waves)
Delta: (Stage 3 NREM): Deep sleep; slow wave sleep
*REM: arousal levels mimic wakefulness, but person is asleep (memory recall & dreaming occurs)

Question 25

The idea that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry is called the ?

Answer 25

Activation-synthesis theory

Question 26

The idea that dreams are a way to solve problems while sleeping is known as what ?

Answer 26

Problem solving dream theory

Question 27

The idea that dreams are merely the counterpart of stream of consciousness is known as ?

Answer 27

Cognitive process dream theory

Question 28

What is the difference between dyssomnias & parasomnias ?

Answer 28

Dys. are disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep (insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea)
Par. are abnormal movements/behaviors while asleep (night terrors & sleepwalking)

Question 29

What reduces nervous system activity & results in a state of relaxation & reduced anxiety ?

Answer 29

Depressants

• Alcohol
• Sedatives

Question 30

What are the effects of alcohol on the brain ?

Answer 30

Increase GABA release (hyperpolarization)
Disinhibition: lack of self control
Increased dopamine level
Alcohol myopia: short sighted view of the world
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (thiamine deficiency)

Question 31

What are the 2 different types of sedatives & what are their functions ?

Answer 31

Barbiturates: historically used as anxiety reducing & sleep medication
Benzodiazepines: more modern & less prone to overdose
*Increase GABA activity
*Taken w/ alcohol = coma or death

Question 32

Stimulants cause an increase in nervous system arousal. What are the different stimulants & what are their functions ?

Answer 32

Amphetamines: increase arousal by release of dopamine, norepinephrine, & serotonin @ synapse & decrease their reuptake
Cocaine: acts on dopamine, norepinephrine, & serotonin synapses, but decreases reuptake of neurotransmitters (crack = can be smoked)
Ecstasy (MDMA): a hallucinogen combined w/ amphetamine

Question 33

What are Opioids & Opiates, & how do they differ ?

Answer 33

Narcotics (painkillers)
Opiates (naturally occuring)—> morphine & codeine
Opioids (semi-synthetic)—> oxycodone, hydrocodone, & heroin

Question 34

What are the 5 basic components of language ?

Answer 34

Phonology: sound of language
Morphology: structure of words
Semantics: association of meaning w/ a word
Syntax: how words are put together to form sentences
Pragmatics: dependence of language on context & preexisting knowledge

Question 35

The idea that advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language is known as ?

Answer 35

Nativist (biological) theory—>Noam Chomsky

• Transformational grammar: rearrange words, still same meaning
• Language acquisition device: theoretical pathway in brain = allows infants to process & absorb language rules
• Critical period: 2 years-puberty to learn or no bueno

Question 36

The idea that language acquisition is obtained by means of operant conditioning is known as ?

Answer 36

Learning (behaviorist) Theory—>B.F. Skinner

Question 37

The idea that our perception of reality is based on the content of language is based on what theory ?

Answer 37

Whorfian hypothesis/linguistic relativity hypothesis

Question 38

A deficit of language production or comprehension is known as ?

Answer 38

Aphasia

Question 39

What are the different types of aphasia ?

Answer 39

Broca’s (expressive): reduced or absent ability to produce spoken word
Wernicke’s (receptive): no comprehension of speech
Conduction: arcuate fasciculus is affected & patient isn’t able to repeat what was said

Question 40

Focusing on one part of the sensorium & ignoring other stimuli is known as ?

Answer 40

Selective attention
Cocktail party phenomenon: engaged in convo & respond to name being called (shifting attention to stimuli more important)
Dichotic listening tests: stimuli going to each ear then asked to repeat out loud (shadowing)

Question 41

The ability to perform multiple tasks @ the same time is termed ?

Answer 41

Divided attention
Automatic processing due to familiar/routine tasks

Ex: driving a car & doing other things

Question 42

The idea that lang. acquisition is derived from one’s desire to interact w/ others is based on ?

Answer 42

Social Interactionist Theory

Question 43

Which dopaminergic pathway does drug addiction most resemble ?

Answer 43

Mesolimbic reward pathway (Nucleus accumbens, Ventral tegmental area, & medial forebrain bundle)
-Typically responsible for emotional response & motivation