Cognition Flashcards
Information-processing model of memory
like a computer
3 parts to it
1. Encode the info [like typing it into a document] [or cataloguing and identifying a new book]
2. Store the info [like saving a document] [or placing a book on a shelf]
3. retrieve the info [like getting it from the hard drive] [or retrieving a book from the shelf]
effortful processing
giving thought and paying attention to new infromation
automatic processing
stimuli that are encoded without any effort
parallel processing
used by the brain to encode multiple things simultaneously
Deep Processing
consciously adding meaning or making connections with information we are taking in
ex. B words
shallow processing
not deep, no meaning attached/lack of placement in a relevant context responsible for forgetfulness
ex. A word
maintenance rehearsal
simple repetition to encode what we are taught
shallow processing
Elaborative rehearsal
Sullivan is SUCH a fan
needs you to think about the meanings or uses of some concept
Chunking
group things into more manageable groups
telephone numbers, social security numbers
schemas
cognitive frameworks based on previous experiences which help fill the gaps in our memory
constructive memory/confabulation
Build things into our memory that were not part of reality
ex. librarian— male or female??
adding the word sleep
adding things to the story
visual encoding
memorize a mental picture
remember what a word likes like or where it is on the page
ex: remember the appearance of one of the dwarves
acoustic encoding
remember the word rhymes with something/feel for rhythm or sound
ex. of an error remember dumpy/bumpy, not grumpy
semantic encoding
remember synonyms but not the word itself
ex.of an error remember a really smart dwarf but not doc
mnemonics
linking part of what we want to remember to something already known
ex. remember Cliff the person by picturing his face as or on a cliff #Rushmore
Method of loci
tie a set of images of things you want to remember to a familiar place and then walk through it, retrieving info as you go
Peg Word
use peg words to create an image and then use already memorized words to recall images by seeing the words
ex. one is a bun, two is a shoe………
hang a word on these, such as hairbrush or whatever, especially action
spacing effect/distributed learning
spread out learning/studying
self-referencing
use connections to your own life to better encode info
overlearning
continue rehearsal even if you have mastered a topic to ensure long-term retention
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
different storage mechanisms, the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory
most accepted
sensory register/sensory memory
allows us to take in ALL SENSORY INPUT very brief functioning,
most just observed and then given no attention, not encode and lost
iconic memory
remember half of an array of letters that is flashed or a single line
there for a moment, but fading as it is being recited
just visual sensory memory
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
hear and register things, even if not listening, but only for a short period of time
how many items can short term memory hold?
7 +/- 2
George Miller
discovered the 7+/-2 pieces of information that could be held
Magic number of short term capacity
7 +/- 2
STM/Working memory
very limited, lasts about 20 seconds and can only hold about 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time
Long-term memory
limitless in terms of capacity
Episodic Memory
Memory for a specific event or period of time in one’s life. Allow us to relive experiences
Semantic Memory
memory for information
facts and ideas
Presidents
Procedural Memory
Memory for specific actions, such as riding a bicycle, tying one’s shoes, or swimming
most enduring types of memories.
Flashbulb Memories
a type of episodic memory
detailed memories of emotionally charged events
vividly recalled
Classic examples have people remember exactly what they were doing when something major occurred
not necessarily always accurate
encoding specificity principle
retrieve information best when we can recreate the environment.conditions we learned information in
context dependent memory
more likely to recall information if in the same physical area of in a similar context as when the material was encountered
state and mood dependent memory
one is more likely to remember something if in a similar emotional/physical state as you were when it occurred
state dependent memory
witness something during fight or flight remember details better during fight or flight
drugs
alcoholic driving home
mood congruent memory
when you are sad, remember a bunch of sad stuff [all by myself] and when you are happy remember happy stuff
eidetic imagery/memory
photographic memory
very rare
precise and long lasting memory
tip of the tongue phenomenon
know the memory is there but can’t quite get it out
Recall
fill in the blank or definitions recall fro memory
Recognition
multiple choice test, select something, prompted, cues
implicit memory/nondeclarative/procedural
“remember” something without knowing we do
LTM
ex. riding a bike
parts of the brain other than the hippocampus, including cerebellum
explicit memory/ declarative memory
consciously declared
LTM
hippocampus
serial position effect
tend to remember first and last things best
primacy effect
remember things at the beginning best/better than middle
recency effect
remember things at the end better than the middle
semantic distinctiveness
catch one’s attnetion because they do not fit the schema of the list
these things are not like the others
ex. Artichoke
eyewitness recall
recollection of info personally experienced
Elizabeth Loftus
works with eyewitness testimony
framing of question/asking leading questions
“Which hand was the gun in?”- not even established that one was there
misinformation effect
alter one’s own memories by supplying them with misleading or inaccurate info
Imagination Inflation
bike story added in one after LOFTUS
Forgetting Curve
Hermann Ebbinghaus
the drop in recall, base maintained over long term
proactive intereference
something form the past inhibits your attempts to recall more recent material
sophmore locker combo inhibits learning junior year one
change email/pass recently
retroactive interference
new information works backwards to erase old memories
junior year combo now gets in the way of soph
changed pass a long time ago and no longer remember original
repression
Freudian bury traumatic thoughts so deeply we forget existence recount trauma through therapy controversial suggestibility comes into play
sketch pad
part of WM, more specifically part of central exec
visual memories and spatial images/materials
episodic buffer
store personal memories, episodes in our lives
Part of WM, more specifically part of central exec
phonological loop
frequently store images to words
can make mistakes/confuse letter [d for t]
part of WM, more specifically part of central exec
central executive
part of WM
manages incoming info/oversees WM
3 parts
elaborative rehearsal
oranize info to remember it
ex. give it a visual
acrostic
Context
washing clothes demo
attaching a simple heading/subjeading makes us remember better
mnemonics
techniques to help us improve memory
categorization
a type of mnemonic
ex. shopping list
study guide
auto-trader
acronym
a type of mnemonic ex. DSAT FPOT SOHCAHTOA CIA FBI
acrostics
a type of mnemonic
Dear King Philip Cam Over From Germany Singing
Never Eat Shredded Wheat
interactive images
a type of mnemonic ex. hippo on campus trying to remember where class is Amy G's dala ripped so she was sad
Methods of loci
a type of mnemonic
ex. memorizing 1st 10 presidents qith houses on street
has to do with locations/places
shopping list on the beach
positive transfer of learning
skill in one area helps to learn something else
French and SPanish
Tricycle to Bicycle
gymnastics to cheerleading
negative transfers of learning
skills in one area interfere with no learning
driivng in US vs UK
soccer to track
skiing vs. snowboarding
Implicit memories
affect behavior byt can’t be recalled
ex. woman in surgery couldn’t pinpoint why she was depressed
don’t like someone you don’t know
explicit memories
consciously or intentionally recollected
Prospective Memory
remembering to remember remembering to perform an action in the future take med before bed pick up flowers study for psych
Parallel Processing
remember all at once
part of retrieval
serial processing
remember one at a time
part of retrieval
self-terminating
part of serial processing
stop once you have the answer
exhaustive memory
part of serial processing
remember whole list then evaluate
hippocampus
forms new memories
release ACh
encoding memory
makes sure gets stored in long term
Amygdala
emotional memory
smell/look/wear in emotion
forms/encodes emotional memories
temporal lobe
stores auditory memory
occipital lobe
stores visual memory
Cerebellum
records memory for classically conditioned responses
CC in Cerebellum
Procedural Memory
Neural Networks
a collection of neurons that work together
more you do something, stronger the net
ACh
low ACh, loss of memory
alzheimers
serotonin
works with ACh and in bio
Transience
decay of unneeded into
typical forgetting
ex. nonsense syllables
absent mindedness
information that is lost because of distraction
ex. keys in door and phone rings
focus on most important things
blocking
interference from other information
useful when you want to prioritize information
serial pos effect: 1st and last block middle
misattribution
information associated with wrong event or person
side effect of a useful way to store memory because we look more big picture
ex. Confuse Sam and Claire’s party
Melissa calls me Elizabeth
conflation
information from different ecents got merged together
HW has frontal lobe damage- asked about date of his wedding and birth of children, said kids were born before wedding
suggestibility
memories can be altered when someone else adds info
can be innocent or not
ex. threrapy causes repressed/manufcatured memory
Lost in mall
framing a question
asking a question directs certain answers/how you ask affects answers
leading questions
purse snatching video
legal video
eyewitness testimony
person’s recollection of an event that they witnessed
controversial
Ferguson
Repressed and Recovered Memories
some consider it an updated version of Freud
memories that are forgotten and then something suddenly triggers them
controversial
Fells Acre Daycare
both false and true case studies
need to be very similar to original memory
ER nurse remembered rape after examining a patient
Bias/hindsight bias
personal beliefs or experiences shape what you recall
ex. Iraq War
couples who were together rated remembered tating each other higher than they actually did, while those who broke up remember rating each other lower
Persistence
Memories won’t go away
can contribute to PTSD
bad side effect of the normally positive attribute of learning from out mistakes
bad breakup
Alzheimer’s Disease
a progressive disease
it begins with forgetting simple things and often goes until no memory is left
related to type two diabetes [avoid fructose corn syrup]
ACh
Amnesia
memory loss without loss of physical functioning
- often disease or damage
3 types
Anterograde Amnesia
Loss of memories after trauma ex. memento HM took out hippocampus, couldn't form new memories Clive Wearing a--->to---->going forward---->new can't form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia
Loss of memories before trauma
-forget life before the trauma
Retro—-> past
Forget the past
Source Amnesia
Forget where you learned info
ex. SOURCE on essay
Suppression
a type of motivated forgetting
AWARE forgetting [try to suppress it]
ex. bad breakup
Repression
a type of motivated forgetting
UNaware forgetting of incidents
ex. PTSD (not all people with PTSD have this)
Mental Images
a mental picture
can rotate
Cognitive Maps
a type of mental picture
Layout of a place in someone’s head
Concepts and Categories
mental groups or similar ideas, objects or people
Prototype
template
best example of something
A type of concept or category
Hierarchy
Superordinate [Super—> highest up] ex. food, Mammals, School
Basic [Regular—-> average—> middle] ex. fruit, horse, High School
Subordinate [Sub—->sublevels—-> lowest level] ex. strawberry, Percheron, Sharon
Divergent Thinking
Brainstorming
ex. What can you do with a paper clip??
Convergent Thinking
Narrow down ideas to focus on one idea
Analysis
Break down a problem into simpler parts good newspapers and bloggers do this #EzraKlein
Synthesis
Combining ideas to get one solution
Language
The use of spoken, written, or signed words to communicate thoughts
Three key things about language {language is}
SYMBOLIC
PRODUCTIVE
GENERATIVE
Nonhuman Language
animals communicate, but is it language??? We don't know Con Lack Grammar Pro Learn Sign Lang
Phonemes
Smallest unit of sound
“Phones use sound”
ex. a, t, a with bar, r
approx 40 in English, at least 100 in world
Until 9 months, babies use every phoneme in the world
Morphemes
Smallest unit of meaning M for meaning ex. Suffixes- ful, ed, Prefixes, pre, un, mono Root words: use, able, soma
Syntax
Rules for making sentences (word order) Sin to get words out of order Not same in every language White HOuse v. Casa Blanca Just because a sentence is syntactically correct, does not mean it makes sense
Semantics
Sentence meaning
active and passive voice
Murph gave brilliant lecture vs. brilliant lecutre was given by Murph
ambiguous sentences
Ambiguous Sentences
Hershey Bars Protest
Complaints about NBA referees growing ugly
Part of semantics
Grammar
rules of language
combines syntax and semantics
Prescriptive Grammar
Rules for writing in school
Descriptive Grammar
way language is used by a group of speakers in everyday life
Related to dialect but not dialect
includes slangg
ex. “Back in the day” “wicked” “ain’t” “come with” “killing it”
Left Hemisphere
Where the language centers are generally located
Broca’s Area
Production of Language
Broca—> B—-> Be agressive—–> Active—> Action —-> Production
Wernicke’s Area
Understanding of words
w—->end of alphabet—->bottom—>underneath—>under—>understanding
Brain Plasticity
Youth
Pathways open
if damage, another part will take over
no accents
Right Hemisphere
Voice inflection
Metaphors
Association Areas
play role in language
Prenatal language Acquisition
Late term fetus, recognize mothers voice
Cooing
vocalizations of infants
EVEN DEAF INFANTS
essentially identical all over
reproducing world phonemes
Babbling
The sounds a child makes are now specific to the phonemes of the language they’re being exposed to
intonations and inflections
sounds like telling you something but makes no sense
ec. Baby video
9mths-1yr
Deaf switch form vocal to hand
Holophrastic Speech
the one word phrase of language acquisition
around 1 yr to 1.5
Overextension
common in Holophrastic Speech
Mama = strange female
Doggie= four legged animal
Telegraphic Speech
2-3 word sentences
T for two
“Daddy Cup” “Me Juice”
2-2.5
Overregularization
trying to apply grammar, but incorrect
“We goed to the zoo”
this is a breakthrough because it means they are gaining a concept of tense
Bt age 4 or so kids are grasping adult syntax
Critical Period/Sensitive Period
An important developmental for learning language
After puberty, language can not be fully learned
THIS IS NOT A FOREIGN LANG, BUT A FIRST ONE
Based on case studies
Wild Children
BIlingual
Isolated CHildren
Deaf Children
Wild Children (Cirtical Period)
Extremely rare
Victor 1800s- vocab but tough
India 1970s
Isolated Children (critical Period)
Very rare
Neglected and abused kids
Isabel- 6 yes
Genie 14 yrs
Bilinguals (Critical period)
Children who learn a second language can speak it without an accent but adults have accents
Deaf Children of Nicaragua (Critical Period)
Learn sign language as kids tend to be more fluent than adult learners
Kids came up with own language
Nativists Theories
Nativist=innate Nature Humans are predisposed to learn language [prewired] Noam Chomsky- MIT LAD Universal Grammar
Language Acquisition Device
LAD
Born with system for processing and producing language
evidence: deaf kids in Nicaragua
supports Nativist Theories
Universal Grammar
all languages have similarities/can learn form other cultures
supports Nativists theories
Learning Theories
Big Forehead Skinner and Bandura (operant and social)
Nurture
Language learning happens through observation and conditioning
when a parent hears kid speak THEY FREAK OUT AND PRAISE THEM SO MUCH! this reward encourages more speech
kids imitate their accent and vocab (bad word)
Problem with learning Theories of Language Acquisition
Kids are rewarded for incorrect speech, but they learn to correct themselves
Cognitive Theories of Language Acquisition
Combines nature and nurture
Predisposed for language
innate system but XP is required for development
-Critical period
Thinking and Language are linked and as cognitive skills develop so does lang
Linguistic Relativity/ the Whorfian Hypothesis
LAnguage influences thought
Supportive evidence
use of he for humanity –> it’s a man’s world
Propoganda
Opposing Evidence for Linguistic Relativity/the Whorfian Hypothesis
Inuits and Snow– Although he said that there many words for snow showed a deeper understanding, skiiers see snow and understand it as much but don’t have as many words
New Guinea natives- only 2 color words but still able to recognize difference between colors
Still thought w/o word
Surface vs. Deep Structure
Noam Chomsky
Each sentence has one surface structure, but multiple deep structures
HUmorous sentences
ec. They are frightening monkeys
Mrs. Nixon found drunk on white house lawn
Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas
Reading
starts out controlled but becomes automatic
English —> alphabetic system
letters correspond to sounds and are units of writing
good readers are automatic
Phonemic Awareness
part of reading e with u o e with bar look
Stroop Effect
Kind of interference
Colors and words don’t match up, hard to read
superordinate categories
broad and overarching
basic categories
specific examples from the superordinate
subordinate categories
specific examples from the basic
Formal Concepts
Defined by very specific rules
ex. a square
Natural concepts
Formed from everyday experiences, do not have a fixed set of defining features
have typical characteristics and are often based on prototypes
Incubation
leave problem for a while after brainstorming to allow the mind to work on it without conscious effort
can lead to further insight upon return
Metacognition
reflecting and thinking about one’s own problem solving strategies
Insight
A correct solution that suddenly comes after struggling with a problem #insightlearningwithmonkeys
Trial and Error
Try a bunch of stuff and eliminate what doesn’t work
Functional Fixedness
Trapped in only seeing certain uses for an object
Potato = food, not emergency gas cap
Paper clip not for earring s
Mental Set
Fixation on one particular way to solve a problem
opposite of Sharon High Math Teachers
students often get trapped into only approaching something in one way
Implicit Assumptions
Assume that there are rules limiting us even when they do not exist
Ex. Nine dot problem
Algorithm
Step-by-step method that ensures a solution as long as each step is done properly
ex. Chain Rule
Heuristics
short cuts in problem solving
rule of thumb
add 0 when something is multiplied by 10
Availability Heuristics
Judge the probability of something based on what automcatically/most easily pops into your head
[what is available]
Ex. plane vs. roadway accident experiment by Kahneman and Tversky
K more common first letter vs 3
more likely to be third, but easier to think of first
Representativeness Heuristics
Judge the probability of something based on how well it matches a prototype or schema that we already have
Kahneman and Tversky again
Likes poetry- professor poetry fan or truck driver
Far greater amount of drivers than professors
Confirmation bias
Look for evidence that supports what you already believe
Explain away contradictory
Belief Perseverance
Once we have formed a belief, we are slow to change minds even if direct evidence against it
especially once public
ex. prezzz—> vote and campaign but then he is super sleazy, less likely to change stance
Cognitive Dissonance
Thoughts or behaviors don’t match
tension caused by conflicting ideas support for pres vs corruption
Ignore poor performance and convince ourselves that he is doing a good job to feel better
Self-Serving bias
take credit for success and blame circumstances for failures
Do well on a test—> such a good studier
Do poorly —–>bad teaching, exhaustion, temperature in the room, etc…
Overconfidence
people tend to want to be right and believe that they are 11
The Dunning-Kruger Effect/illusory superiority
People who are bad at something often think they are really good
Incompetence helps keep them from realizing incompetence
ex. oblivious drivers don’t see how bad they are
ex. Worst comedians gave themselves higher scores
Hindsight bias
Knew it all along
when people learn an outcome/solution, seems obvious
convinced they knew it all along
After a failure, more knowledgeable about error than while game was occurring
