Class Two Flashcards
what is reproducibility
ability to reproduce study results by other researchers
should the dependent variable be quantitative or qualitative
quantitative - numerical
why is it important for the control & experimental groups to be as similar as possible
to rule out confounding factors
placebo effect
believing that treatment is being administered which leads to a measurable effect
how to counter placebo effect
double blind experiment
what is sampling bias
if it is not equally likely for all members of a population to be sampled
what is attrition
participants dropping out of the study
construct validity
the instruments measure what they’re supposed to
replicability
repeated measurements lead to similar results
response bias
participants not having perfect insight into their state + providing inaccurate responses
between subjects design
comparisons made between subject (one group and another)
within subjects design
comparing the same group at different times
mixed methods research
combination of different research techniques
such as combination of between & within subjects design
type 2 error
concluding that there is no effect, false negative
type 1 error
saying there is an effect when there actually isn’t
is a type 1 or 2 error better
type 2 error
what is a p value
represents the probability that a difference observed is due to chance
a smaller p value means..
there is a stronger relationship
external validity
ability to apply scientific results to the real world
internal validity
are there inherent flaws in the design?
what are demand characteristics
the tendency of participants to act in ways that match how they are expected to behave
demand characteristics have an effect on..
internal validity
predictive validity
does the test tell us about the variable of interest?
impression management
participants adapting their responses to what they think the right response is
threat to internal validity
confounding variables
variables not accounted for that affects results
threat to internal validity
lack of reliability
measurement tools fo not measure what they should
threat to internal validity
sampling bias
e.g. selection criteria is not random
threat to internal validity
attrition effects
partipant fatigue
threat to internal validity
selection criteria
too restrictive criteria
threat to external validity
situational effects
presence of lab conditions changes outcome
threat to external validity
lack of statistical power
small groups have high variability
threat to external validity
why do ethical problems arise in experimental designs
researchers are manipulating variables - not just observing in nature
pros and cons of non-experimental designs
pro: observing results in a natural setting
con: reduced control of variables - reduced internal validity
correlational studies
looks at the relationship between 2 quantitative variables
ethnographic studies
qualitative method where researchers immerse themselves in the culture of the people they are studying
greatest strength of ethnographic studies
depth of analysis
cons of ethnographic studies
usually working alone: no critique of methodology
presence of researcher: affects the group’s behaviours
objectivity of the researchers is threatened (attachment with culture)
twin studies
test the relationship between nature and nuture
best way to test heritability
twin studies
what is heritability
the extent to which an observed trait is due to genetics vs environment
longitudinal studies
how individuals develop over time along a research variable
disposition at birth effecting the life we live
pros and cons of longitudinal studies
pro: looking at how a factor can develop over time
cons: high attrition rates, costly + need lots of resources
cross sectional study
data collection of a population at a specific time
case studies
in depth exploration of one individual/case
phenomenological studies
attempts to understand people’s perceptions/perspectives
usually by researchers studying themselves
phenomenological studies
attempts to understand people’s perceptions/perspectives
usually by researchers studying themselves
pros and cons of phenomenological studies
pro: detail + in depth understanding
con: can’t generalize + small sample size (reduced external validity)
pros and cons of surveys
pro: easy to administer & cost effective
con: participants don’t feel encouraged to give honest answers & poor questions
archival studies
analyze already collected data from historical records
biographical studies
accounts of an individual’s life experiences
functions of family (5)
reproduction
protection
socialization (passed down norms)
affection + companionship
social status (family background)
nuclear family
direct blood relations
extended family
grandparents, aunts, uncles etc.
monogamy
form of marriage - 2 individuals
polygamy
multiple wives/husbands
polygyny vs polyandry
polygyny: one man & 2+ women
polyandry: one woman & 2+ men
endogamy
marrying within a certain group
exogamy
marrying outside of a certain group
(prohibition of sexual relationships between relatives)
what is bilateral descent
kin groups involving both maternal & paternal relations
patriarchy
men having more authority than women
egalitarian family
spouses treated as equals
4 types of child abuse
physical, emotional, sexual and neglect
abuse has been linked to..
alcohol consumption, mental illness & certain social conditions
manifest functions of education
pass down knowledge + give status to educated people
latent functions of education
socialization + maintaining social control
hidden curriculum of schools
often conflicts with the manifest curriculum
educational segregation
widening disparity between children from high-income areas and those from low-income areas
teacher expectancy theory
teachers form expectations of students + act towards students in this manner
student will perform in accordance if they decide the expectations are reasonable
ecclesia
dominant religious organization that includes most members of society - official religion + doesn’t tolerate others
church
a religious organization that is well integrated into larger society
allows people to join
sect
a religious organization that is distinct from society - often formed by breaking away from a larger religion
e.g. Mormons
cult / new religious movement
far outside society’s norms & involves a very different lifestyle
secularization
process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societyy
fundamentalism
second response to modernist societies in which there is a strong attachment to religious beliefs
christianity
largest single faith in the world
monotheistic
prophets, after life and judgment day
islam
second largest religion in the world
monotheistic
prophets, afterlife & judgement day
muslim governments often do not separate state and religion
hinduism
polytheistic religion
reincarnation
buddhism
mediative practices to overcome physical/material pleasures
judaism
monotheistic
formed the historical basis for christianity and islam
if certain rules are followed, god would bring paradise to earth
rational legal authority
legal rules are stipulated in a document (America, constitution)
traditional authority
derives power from custom, traditions or accepted practice
charismatic authority
power of persuasion - used by some leaders
aristarchic governments
controlled by a small group of people (public is not involved with decision making)
types of aristarchic governments
aristocracies: ruled by elites (royalty)
meritocracies: ruled by those with significant social contribution
autocratic governments
controlled by one person - absolute decision making power
e.g. dictatorships and fascist governments
monarchic governments
controlled by a single person who inherited their leadership title
authoritarian governments
unelected leaders
includes totalitarianism
what is totalitarianism
unelected leaders regulate public and private life
coercive means of control
democratic governments
elected leaders
public has some degree of decision making power
types of democratic governments
direct: direct public participation
representative: indirected public participation (election of representatives)
republican governments
country is public concern - democratic
people have supreme power
federalist governments
representative head that shares power with constituent groups
parliamentary governments
include both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected
presidential govenemtns
include organizing branches, including head of state
anarchy
societies without a public government
command economies
aka planned economies
economic decisions are made on a plan of production
means of production are often public - socialism and communism
market economies
economic decisions are based on the market (supply & demand)
means of production are often private
mixed economies
blend of command and market with public and private ownerships
traditional economies
consider social customs in economic devision
rural areas - trading
capitalist system
resources & production are privately owned & goods/services are produced for profit
driving force of capitalism
pursuit of personal profit
socialist system
resources and production are collectively owned
production of goods is only for direct use (not profit)
driving force of socialism
collective goals
communism
specific socialist structure
absence of currencies, classes and states based on economic/politic/social ideologies
welfare capitalism
most of the economy is private except social welfare programs to serve certain needs
state capitalism
companies are privately run but work closely with the government to form laws + regulations
division of labor
occurs when society becomes so complex that an individual cannot meet all their needs alone
pros and cons of division of labor
pro: increased rate of production
con: decreased the similarities in social experience among individuals
mechanical solidarity
society remains integrated because individuals have common beliefs - same experiences
organic solidarity
allows society to integrate through a division of labor
people have different personal experiences
primary healthcare
care provider responsible for preventative care or disease management
secondary healthcare
acute care (emergency) and speciality care (need a referral)
tertiary healthcare
specialized form of healthcare
consultations with specialist care providers
e.g. cancer hospitals
medical model of disease
emphasizes physical or medical factors as being the cause of all illness
medical model of disease
emphasizes physical or medical factors as being the cause of all illness
social model of disease
emphasizes the effect one’s social class/employment etc. can have on one’s health
social epidemiology
how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence and distribution of disease
the “sick” role
when someone is sick, they are not a contributing member of society (deviance)
others in society make up for the extra work
the sick person must continue to seek treatment
limitations of the “sick” role
doesn’t account for chronic diseases or stigmatized diseases
people won’t accept that this person is actually sick
the “illness” experience
patient’s subjective experience of illness
meanings people give to their illness & how it affects their daily lives
symbolic culture
consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture
help people within a society communicate + understand each other
material culture
involves physical objects artifacts
clothing, hairstyles, food etc.
can reflect a culture’s values
non-material culture
specific to social thoughts and ideas, such as values
popular culture
describe features of a culture that appeal to the masses
communicated through mass media
high culture
features that are limited to the consumption of the elite
cultural universals
patterns or traits that are common to all people
basic human survival and needs
what are values
a culture’s standard for evaluating what is good or bad
what are beleifs
convictions of principles that people hold
what are norms
the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within society
sociobiology
study off how biology and evolution have affected human social behaviour
cultural diffusion
transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another
contributes to the cultural similarities between different societies
cultural competence
effective interactions between people from different cultures
cultural transmission
process of information spread across generations
cultural lag
transformative social changes occur - no social consensus about the new information
why does cultural lag occur
material culture changes much faster than non-material culture, which often resists change
two modern theories of sociocultural evolution
modernization and sociobiology
why is the world experiencing a period of population growth
advances in agricultural production
innovations in medicine
carrying capacity
total possible population that can be supported with resources without significant negative effects
crude birth rate
annual number of births per 1000 people in a population
crude death rate
annual number of deaths per 1000 people in a population
total fertility rate
total number of births per single women in a population (assuming that the women experience the current recorded age-specified fertility rate)
replacement fertility rate
at which the population will be balanced
sub-replacement fertility rate
birth rate is less than death rate (population size will not be sustained)
crude death rate and GDP
inverse relationship
nomadism
continuous travel in search of natural resources
not migration - don’t settle
external migration
international migration - often economic or political reasons
internal migration
migrating to another area in the same country
economic - pursuing better opportunities
involuntary migration
threat to individuals in their original environments (e.g. social cleansing)
migration - push & pull
push: things that are unattractive about an area and “pushes” people to leave
pull: things that are attractive and “pulls” people to come
white flight
suburbanization - migration of whites from cities to racially homogenous areas
urban sprawl
migration of people from urban areas to other places
consequence of urban sprawl
urban blight - less functioning areas of large cities degrade as a result of urban decline
gentrification
renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal
demographic transition
transition from overall higher to overall lower birth and death rates (pre-industrial → industrial)
Thomas Rober Malthus
said that population is the result of available resources
population will increase with increased resources
Malthusiainism
the possible rate of population increased exceeds the possible rate of resource increase
positive & preventative checks
positive - raise the death rate (disease)
preventative - lower the birth rate (birth control)
Malthusian Catastrophe
means of sustenance is not enough to support the population → population reduction
Neo-Malthusian
movement that advocates for population control → reduces negative effects of population strain
the Great Migration
migration of blacks from the rural south to the urban north after the abolition of slavery
the New Great Migration
domestic reverse migration
increase in black migration to the now urban south
population aging
disproportionate amount of older people in a population
social aging
complex emotional and social changes that occur due to this biological process
what is sex
biological characteristic that is assigned at birth & permanent in most cases (based on chromosomes and genitalia)
what is gender
social characteristics that is based on behavioural role expectations
gender schema theory
study of how gender beliefs become socialized in society
race vs ethnicity
race = biological
ethnicity = cultural
ethnocentrism
when people look at issues from the perspective of a particular cultural background
pansexuality
attracted to people regardless of their gender or sex
asexuality
lack of sexual attraction
17th & 18th century immigration - USA
English colonists migrated to the US & servants (making up over half of all immigrants from Europe during this time)
mid-19th century immigration - USA
mostly from Northern Europe
early 20th century immigration - USA
mainly from southern and Eastern Europe - world war 2
the Great Depression reduced immigration to US (more emigration during that time)
late 20th century immigration - USA
mostly from Asia and Latin America
highest immigration rates ever
globalization
increasing interdependence of societies and connections between people around the world
economic interdependence
division of labor on a global scale
relative deprivation
being entitled to more than what one has in their current situation based on relative standards
intergenerational mobility
increase/decrease in social class between parents & children within a family
intragenerational mobility
differences in social class between different members of the same generation
marginal vs structural poverty
marginal: due to lack of stable employment
structural: due to the underlying & pervasive effects of society’s institutions
amalgamation
majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
what is social stratification
the way in which people are categorized into society (by race, wealth, education etc.)
