Class Six Flashcards
what is non associative learning
occurs when someone is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus
two types of non associative learning
habituation and sensitization
what is associative learning
process of learning where an event/object/action is directly connected with another
two categories of associative learning
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
what is classical conditioning
2 stimuli paired together so that the response to one of the stimulus changes
e.g. Pavlov’s dogs
acquisition
process of learning the conditioned response
extinction
occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired
spontaneous recovery
extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some time
generalization
process where other stimulus can also elicit the conditioned response
discrimination - classical conditioning
opposite of generalization
conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli
taste-aversion
eating a specific food and becoming sick → keep avoiding that food
doesn’t need a long acquisition phase
what is operant conditioning
use of negative and positive consequences to mold behaviour
BF Skinner’s rat experiment
rat pushing the lever to get food
what are reinforcements
anything that will increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated
can be pos or neg
pos vs neg reinforcements
positive: adds a positive stimulus
negative: takes away a negative stimulus
brain structures involved in neg/pos conditioning
negative: amygdala
positive: hippocampus
primary vs secondary reinforcers
primary: integral to survival (food, avoiding pain etc.)
secondary: neutral stimuli paired with primary stimuli
continuous vs intermittent reinforcement schedule
continuous: fast acquisition but also fast extinction
intermittent: slower acquisition and slower extinction
fixed ratio schedule
set number of instances = reinforcement
high rate of response
variable ratio schedule
providing rein foment after unpredictable number off occurrences
e.g. gambling
high response rate
fixed interval schele
providing reinforcement after a set interval of time
behaviour increases as the reinforcement interval comes to an end
variable interval schedule
providing reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time
slow, steady behaviour
which schedule has the slowest rate of extinction
variable ratio
positive vs negative punishment
positive: pairing an undesirable stimulus with a behaviour
negative: removal of a desirable stimulus
what has a longer effect - reinforcement or punishment?
reinforcement
learning and biological relevance
learning occurs more quickly if it is biologically relevant
consolidation
process in which short term memory is converted into long term memory
long term potentiation
increase in synaptic strength between 2 neurons leads to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli
what is observational learning
learning through watching + imitation
when do mirror neurons fire
when performing a task or when observing someone else perform the task
encoding
process of transferring sensory information into our memory system
primacy and recency effect
being able to remember the first and last things in a list
first thing: had more time to be encoded
last thing: still in the phonological loop, more available
dual coding hypothesis
says it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone
self-reference effect
easier to remember things that are personally relevant
sensory memory
initial recording of sensory information in the memory system → quickly decays
two types of sensory memory
iconic memory and echoic memory
iconic memory
brief photographic memory for visual info → decays very, very fast
eidetic memory
ability found in children
remembering an image in vivid detail for a couple minutes
echoic memory
memory for sound → lasts for 3-4 seconds
short term memory
limited in duration and capacity
lasts for 20 seconds
short term memory is correlated with which brain structure
hippocampus
working memory is correlated with which brain structure
prefrontal cortex
implicit/procedural memory
knowledge of how to do something
explicit/declarative memory
being able to voice what is known
semantic memory
memory for factual information
episodic memory
autographical memory for personal information
which deteriorates first - episodic or semantic
semantic
brain structures involved in memory
hippocampus
cerebellum
amygdala
retrieval
process of finding information stored in memory
recall
ability to retrieve information
free vs cued recall
free: retrieval out of thin air
cued: retrieval when provided with a cue
what influences decline in memory
activity - physical and mental
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
hippocampus - memory
encodes new explicit memories
cerebellum - memory
encodes implicit memories
amygdala - memory
ties emotion to memories
anterograde amnesis
inability to encode new memories
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall preciously encoded information
theory of why Alzheimers occurs
inability to manufacture enough ACh → neuronal death in hippocampus
proactive interference
happens when info previously learned interferes with ability to recall info learned after
retroactive interference
newly learned info interferes with the recall of info learned previously
positive transfer - memory
old info facilitates the learning of new info
misinformation effect
tendency to misremember
moro (startle) reflex
in response to a loud noise, infant will startle
rooting reflex
touching a baby’s cheeks will have them opening their mouth looking for a nipple
sucking reflex
if something touches the roof of a baby’s mouth, it will suck
Babinski reflex
sole of foot gets touched = toes fan out
tonic neck reflex
when head is turned one side, the baby stretches arm on the same side and the opposite side bends up at the elbow
palmar reflex
stroking baby’s palm and hand will grasp
walking/stepping reflex
if something touches sole of feet, baby will attempt to walk
reflexive movements
primitive, involuntary → prime the neuromuscular system for more movement later on
rudimentary movements
first voluntary movements performed by a child
e.g. sitting, crawling
dictated by genetics
fundamental movements
child is learning how manipulate their body
highly influenced by environment
specialized movement
children learn to combine fundamental movement and apply them to specific tasks
infantile amnesia
not being able to remember anything before age 3.5
authoritarian parenting
controlling children with strict rules
give punishments and no reasoning
children grow up to be aggressive/shy with low self esteem
permissive parents
allow their children to be in charge, no rules
children grow up to lack self-discipline and low social skills
authoritative parents
listening to children and encouraging independence
disciplined fair and consistently
produces children that are happy and have good emotional control
3 major changes of brain during adolescence
cell proliferation
synaptic pruning
myelination
when does displacement occur
in short term memory
retroactive interference
new info interfering with the ability to recall old info
proactive interference
old info interfering with the ability to recall new info
what is the prefrontal cortex involved with
reflection, planning & emotional regulation
ability to understand the perspectives of others
structural vs functional imaging
structural - picture of brain, spacing etc.
functional - shows which part of the brain is active
computerized tomography (CT)
shows anatomical parts of the brain
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
use of strong magnets
can be structural or functional
CTs vs MRIs
CTs are faster + less expensive
MRIs give more details about soft tissues & no x rays (radiation)
CTs and MRIs are examples of..
structural imaging techniques
electroencephalography (EEG)
use of electrodes to measure voltage of brain neutrons
give data about brain waves
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
mapping brain activity by using magnetic fields
requires expensive bulky machinery
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
use of a computer to combine MRIs to show how brain activity changes over time
can show changes in oxygen levels
very precise
positron emission tomography (PET)
gives an image of functional metabolic processes over time
what does the CNS include
brain + spinal cord
three divisions of the brain
hindbrain
midbrain
forebrain
functions of CSF
shock absorption
exchange of nutrients + waste
what protects the spinal cord
CSF & vertebral column
what is the hindbrain composed of
medulla, pons & the cerebellum
function of the medulla
area of brain that connects to spinal cord
vital autonomic functions - BP, vomiting & breathing
function of the pons
plays a role in balance
coordinates movement
function of the cerebellum
helps coordinate complex movements
receives info from the vestibular apparatus
what 2 structures receive info from the vestibular apparatus
pons and cerebellum
what is the reticular activating system responsible for
arousal or wakefulness
what does the forebrain include
the diencephalon and telencephalon
what does the diencephalon include
thalamus and hypothalamus
function of the thalamus
contains relay & processing centers for sensory info
function of the hypothalamus
major role in hormone production + release
controls emotions + autonomic functions
what does the left hemisphere control
motor functions for right side of the body
what does the right hemisphere control
motor functions for the left side of the body
for most people, which hemisphere is dominant
left
left vs right hemispheres - what are they responsible for
left - speech
right - visual spatial reasoning & music
what are the cerebral hemispheres connected by
corpus callosum
4 lobes of the brain
frontal
parietal
temporal
occipital
function of the frontal lobes
voluntary moment, reasoning skills
function of the parietal lobes
general sensations + taste
receives input from mechanoreceptors & proprioceptors
function of the temporal lobes
auditory & olfactory sensations
short term memory, emotion, language comp
function of the occipital lobes
visual sensation
Broca’s area
speech production
Wernicke’s area
language comp
function of the basal nuclei
voluntary motor control
procedural learning → habits
prevent excess movement
function of the limbic system
emotion & memory
two types of neurotransmitters
excitatory and inhibitory
excitatory vs inhibitory neurotransmitters
excitatory - increase postsynaptic neuron firing
inhibitory - decrease firing
functions of dopamine
reward, mood, pleasure, focus + attention
not enough → depression
functions of serotonin
mood, digestion, memory & sexual desire
not enough → aggression & compulsive behaviour
functions of melatonin
sleepiness
not enough → insomnia
functions of GABA
primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
not enough → anxiety, depression, ADHD
functions of ACh
excitation at neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic activity
not enough → dysfunction of GI tract & paralysis
functions of epinephrine & norepinephrine
sympathetic nervous system activation
not enough → fatigue, loss of focus
functions of glutamate
primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, memory
not enough → fatigue
where do serotonin pathways project from
raphe nucleus
3 dopaminergic pathways
mesolimbic circuit: natural pathway for reward/pleasure
nigrostriatal circuit: movement + coordination
mesocortical circuity: higher corital functions
functions of cortisol
stress, sympathetic NS response
functions of oxytocin
trust, sexual reproduction, mother-infant bonding
functions of endorphins
pleasure, arousal & pain suppression
functions of leptin
regulate energy, inhibit hunger
damage to prefrontal cortex leads to..
inappropriateness, impulsivity
primary center for reward in brain
nucelus accumbens (releases dopamine)
what releases endorphins
lateral hypothalamus
neural plasticity
malleability of the brains pathways and synapses based on behaviour and environment etc.
problems with mirror neurons might explain..
autism → problem with empathy
CRH and ACTH pathway
hypothalamus releases CRH
CRH gets the pituitary gland to release ACTH
ACTH gets the adrenal glands to release cortisol
what does cortisol do
hormone that gets the body to use fat instead of glucose as the energy source
helps keep bloodsugar high during stressful situations (so brain can use the glucose)
what may be responsible for the negative signs of schizophrenia
hypoactivation of the frontal lobes
