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Psychology/Sociology - MCAT > Class Six > Flashcards

Class Six Flashcards

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1
Q

what is non associative learning

A

occurs when someone is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus

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2
Q

two types of non associative learning

A

habituation and sensitization

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3
Q

what is associative learning

A

process of learning where an event/object/action is directly connected with another

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4
Q

two categories of associative learning

A

classical conditioning

operant conditioning

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5
Q

what is classical conditioning

A

2 stimuli paired together so that the response to one of the stimulus changes

e.g. Pavlov’s dogs

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6
Q

acquisition

A

process of learning the conditioned response

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7
Q

extinction

A

occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired

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8
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some time

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9
Q

generalization

A

process where other stimulus can also elicit the conditioned response

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10
Q

discrimination - classical conditioning

A

opposite of generalization

conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli

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11
Q

taste-aversion

A

eating a specific food and becoming sick → keep avoiding that food

doesn’t need a long acquisition phase

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12
Q

what is operant conditioning

A

use of negative and positive consequences to mold behaviour

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13
Q

BF Skinner’s rat experiment

A

rat pushing the lever to get food

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14
Q

what are reinforcements

A

anything that will increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated

can be pos or neg

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15
Q

pos vs neg reinforcements

A

positive: adds a positive stimulus
negative: takes away a negative stimulus

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16
Q

brain structures involved in neg/pos conditioning

A

negative: amygdala
positive: hippocampus

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17
Q

primary vs secondary reinforcers

A

primary: integral to survival (food, avoiding pain etc.)
secondary: neutral stimuli paired with primary stimuli

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18
Q

continuous vs intermittent reinforcement schedule

A

continuous: fast acquisition but also fast extinction
intermittent: slower acquisition and slower extinction

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19
Q

fixed ratio schedule

A

set number of instances = reinforcement

high rate of response

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20
Q

variable ratio schedule

A

providing rein foment after unpredictable number off occurrences

e.g. gambling

high response rate

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21
Q

fixed interval schele

A

providing reinforcement after a set interval of time

behaviour increases as the reinforcement interval comes to an end

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22
Q

variable interval schedule

A

providing reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time

slow, steady behaviour

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23
Q

which schedule has the slowest rate of extinction

A

variable ratio

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24
Q

positive vs negative punishment

A

positive: pairing an undesirable stimulus with a behaviour
negative: removal of a desirable stimulus

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25
Q

what has a longer effect - reinforcement or punishment?

A

reinforcement

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26
Q

learning and biological relevance

A

learning occurs more quickly if it is biologically relevant

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27
Q

consolidation

A

process in which short term memory is converted into long term memory

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28
Q

long term potentiation

A

increase in synaptic strength between 2 neurons leads to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli

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29
Q

what is observational learning

A

learning through watching + imitation

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30
Q

when do mirror neurons fire

A

when performing a task or when observing someone else perform the task

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31
Q

encoding

A

process of transferring sensory information into our memory system

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32
Q

primacy and recency effect

A

being able to remember the first and last things in a list

first thing: had more time to be encoded

last thing: still in the phonological loop, more available

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33
Q

dual coding hypothesis

A

says it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

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34
Q

self-reference effect

A

easier to remember things that are personally relevant

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35
Q

sensory memory

A

initial recording of sensory information in the memory system → quickly decays

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36
Q

two types of sensory memory

A

iconic memory and echoic memory

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37
Q

iconic memory

A

brief photographic memory for visual info → decays very, very fast

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38
Q

eidetic memory

A

ability found in children

remembering an image in vivid detail for a couple minutes

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39
Q

echoic memory

A

memory for sound → lasts for 3-4 seconds

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40
Q

short term memory

A

limited in duration and capacity

lasts for 20 seconds

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41
Q

short term memory is correlated with which brain structure

A

hippocampus

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42
Q

working memory is correlated with which brain structure

A

prefrontal cortex

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43
Q

implicit/procedural memory

A

knowledge of how to do something

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44
Q

explicit/declarative memory

A

being able to voice what is known

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45
Q

semantic memory

A

memory for factual information

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46
Q

episodic memory

A

autographical memory for personal information

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47
Q

which deteriorates first - episodic or semantic

A

semantic

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48
Q

brain structures involved in memory

A

hippocampus

cerebellum

amygdala

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49
Q

retrieval

A

process of finding information stored in memory

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50
Q

recall

A

ability to retrieve information

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51
Q

free vs cued recall

A

free: retrieval out of thin air
cued: retrieval when provided with a cue

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52
Q

what influences decline in memory

A

activity - physical and mental

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53
Q

prospective memory

A

remembering to do things in the future

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54
Q

hippocampus - memory

A

encodes new explicit memories

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55
Q

cerebellum - memory

A

encodes implicit memories

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56
Q

amygdala - memory

A

ties emotion to memories

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57
Q

anterograde amnesis

A

inability to encode new memories

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58
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

inability to recall preciously encoded information

59
Q

theory of why Alzheimers occurs

A

inability to manufacture enough ACh → neuronal death in hippocampus

60
Q

proactive interference

A

happens when info previously learned interferes with ability to recall info learned after

61
Q

retroactive interference

A

newly learned info interferes with the recall of info learned previously

62
Q

positive transfer - memory

A

old info facilitates the learning of new info

63
Q

misinformation effect

A

tendency to misremember

64
Q

moro (startle) reflex

A

in response to a loud noise, infant will startle

65
Q

rooting reflex

A

touching a baby’s cheeks will have them opening their mouth looking for a nipple

66
Q

sucking reflex

A

if something touches the roof of a baby’s mouth, it will suck

67
Q

Babinski reflex

A

sole of foot gets touched = toes fan out

68
Q

tonic neck reflex

A

when head is turned one side, the baby stretches arm on the same side and the opposite side bends up at the elbow

69
Q

palmar reflex

A

stroking baby’s palm and hand will grasp

70
Q

walking/stepping reflex

A

if something touches sole of feet, baby will attempt to walk

71
Q

reflexive movements

A

primitive, involuntary → prime the neuromuscular system for more movement later on

72
Q

rudimentary movements

A

first voluntary movements performed by a child

e.g. sitting, crawling

dictated by genetics

73
Q

fundamental movements

A

child is learning how manipulate their body

highly influenced by environment

74
Q

specialized movement

A

children learn to combine fundamental movement and apply them to specific tasks

75
Q

infantile amnesia

A

not being able to remember anything before age 3.5

76
Q

authoritarian parenting

A

controlling children with strict rules

give punishments and no reasoning

children grow up to be aggressive/shy with low self esteem

77
Q

permissive parents

A

allow their children to be in charge, no rules

children grow up to lack self-discipline and low social skills

78
Q

authoritative parents

A

listening to children and encouraging independence

disciplined fair and consistently

produces children that are happy and have good emotional control

79
Q

3 major changes of brain during adolescence

A

cell proliferation

synaptic pruning

myelination

80
Q

when does displacement occur

A

in short term memory

81
Q

retroactive interference

A

new info interfering with the ability to recall old info

82
Q

proactive interference

A

old info interfering with the ability to recall new info

83
Q

what is the prefrontal cortex involved with

A

reflection, planning & emotional regulation

ability to understand the perspectives of others

84
Q

structural vs functional imaging

A

structural - picture of brain, spacing etc.

functional - shows which part of the brain is active

85
Q

computerized tomography (CT)

A

shows anatomical parts of the brain

86
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

use of strong magnets

can be structural or functional

87
Q

CTs vs MRIs

A

CTs are faster + less expensive

MRIs give more details about soft tissues & no x rays (radiation)

88
Q

CTs and MRIs are examples of..

A

structural imaging techniques

89
Q

electroencephalography (EEG)

A

use of electrodes to measure voltage of brain neutrons

give data about brain waves

90
Q

magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

mapping brain activity by using magnetic fields

requires expensive bulky machinery

91
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

use of a computer to combine MRIs to show how brain activity changes over time

can show changes in oxygen levels

very precise

92
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

gives an image of functional metabolic processes over time

93
Q

what does the CNS include

A

brain + spinal cord

94
Q

three divisions of the brain

A

hindbrain

midbrain

forebrain

95
Q

functions of CSF

A

shock absorption

exchange of nutrients + waste

96
Q

what protects the spinal cord

A

CSF & vertebral column

97
Q

what is the hindbrain composed of

A

medulla, pons & the cerebellum

98
Q

function of the medulla

A

area of brain that connects to spinal cord

vital autonomic functions - BP, vomiting & breathing

99
Q

function of the pons

A

plays a role in balance

coordinates movement

100
Q

function of the cerebellum

A

helps coordinate complex movements

receives info from the vestibular apparatus

101
Q

what 2 structures receive info from the vestibular apparatus

A

pons and cerebellum

102
Q

what is the reticular activating system responsible for

A

arousal or wakefulness

103
Q

what does the forebrain include

A

the diencephalon and telencephalon

104
Q

what does the diencephalon include

A

thalamus and hypothalamus

105
Q

function of the thalamus

A

contains relay & processing centers for sensory info

106
Q

function of the hypothalamus

A

major role in hormone production + release

controls emotions + autonomic functions

107
Q

what does the left hemisphere control

A

motor functions for right side of the body

108
Q

what does the right hemisphere control

A

motor functions for the left side of the body

109
Q

for most people, which hemisphere is dominant

A

left

110
Q

left vs right hemispheres - what are they responsible for

A

left - speech

right - visual spatial reasoning & music

111
Q

what are the cerebral hemispheres connected by

A

corpus callosum

112
Q

4 lobes of the brain

A

frontal

parietal

temporal

occipital

113
Q

function of the frontal lobes

A

voluntary moment, reasoning skills

114
Q

function of the parietal lobes

A

general sensations + taste

receives input from mechanoreceptors & proprioceptors

115
Q

function of the temporal lobes

A

auditory & olfactory sensations

short term memory, emotion, language comp

116
Q

function of the occipital lobes

A

visual sensation

117
Q

Broca’s area

A

speech production

118
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

language comp

119
Q

function of the basal nuclei

A

voluntary motor control

procedural learning → habits

prevent excess movement

120
Q

function of the limbic system

A

emotion & memory

121
Q

two types of neurotransmitters

A

excitatory and inhibitory

122
Q

excitatory vs inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

excitatory - increase postsynaptic neuron firing

inhibitory - decrease firing

123
Q

functions of dopamine

A

reward, mood, pleasure, focus + attention

not enough → depression

124
Q

functions of serotonin

A

mood, digestion, memory & sexual desire

not enough → aggression & compulsive behaviour

125
Q

functions of melatonin

A

sleepiness

not enough → insomnia

126
Q

functions of GABA

A

primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

not enough → anxiety, depression, ADHD

127
Q

functions of ACh

A

excitation at neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic activity

not enough → dysfunction of GI tract & paralysis

128
Q

functions of epinephrine & norepinephrine

A

sympathetic nervous system activation

not enough → fatigue, loss of focus

129
Q

functions of glutamate

A

primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, memory

not enough → fatigue

130
Q

where do serotonin pathways project from

A

raphe nucleus

131
Q

3 dopaminergic pathways

A

mesolimbic circuit: natural pathway for reward/pleasure

nigrostriatal circuit: movement + coordination

mesocortical circuity: higher corital functions

132
Q

functions of cortisol

A

stress, sympathetic NS response

133
Q

functions of oxytocin

A

trust, sexual reproduction, mother-infant bonding

134
Q

functions of endorphins

A

pleasure, arousal & pain suppression

135
Q

functions of leptin

A

regulate energy, inhibit hunger

136
Q

damage to prefrontal cortex leads to..

A

inappropriateness, impulsivity

137
Q

primary center for reward in brain

A

nucelus accumbens (releases dopamine)

138
Q

what releases endorphins

A

lateral hypothalamus

139
Q

neural plasticity

A

malleability of the brains pathways and synapses based on behaviour and environment etc.

140
Q

problems with mirror neurons might explain..

A

autism → problem with empathy

141
Q

CRH and ACTH pathway

A

hypothalamus releases CRH

CRH gets the pituitary gland to release ACTH

ACTH gets the adrenal glands to release cortisol

142
Q

what does cortisol do

A

hormone that gets the body to use fat instead of glucose as the energy source

helps keep bloodsugar high during stressful situations (so brain can use the glucose)

143
Q

what may be responsible for the negative signs of schizophrenia

A

hypoactivation of the frontal lobes

Psychology/Sociology - MCAT (7 decks)

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