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Psychology/Sociology - MCAT > Class Three > Flashcards

Class Three Flashcards

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1
Q

what is self concept/identity

A

the sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding of him/herself

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2
Q

what is self consciousness

A

awareness of one’s self

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3
Q

what are self schemas

A

beliefs that a person has about him/herself

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4
Q

what is personal identity

A

one’s own sense of personal attributes

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5
Q

what is social identity

A

social definitions of who you are

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6
Q

theory of self-verification

A

individuals want to be understood in terms of their core beliefs

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7
Q

self-reference effect

A

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

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8
Q

Carl Rogers - theory

A

personality is composed of the ideal self and the real self

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9
Q

what is the ideal self

A

constructed out of life experiences/social expectations/role models → person you want to be

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10
Q

when the ideal self and the real self are similar..

A

results in positive self-concept

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11
Q

not meeting the ideal self

A

impossible standard to meet - when real self falls short → incongruity

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12
Q

influences on one’s development of self-concept (x3)

A

self-efficacy

locus of control

self-esteem

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13
Q

what is self-efficacy

A

how capable we believe we are of doing things

can vary for different tasks

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14
Q

locus of control can be..

A

internal or external

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15
Q

internal locus of control

A

these people believe that they are able to influence outcomes through their efforts/actions

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16
Q

external locus of control

A

these people perceive outcomes as controlled by outside forces

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17
Q

learned helplessness

A

people choosing not to act because they believe it won’t affect the outcome

strong external locus of control

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18
Q

a strong external locus of control is seen in..

A

depressed/oppressed people → results in passivity

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19
Q

what is self-esteem

A

one’s overall self-evaluation of one’s self-worth

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20
Q

can self-efficacy improve self-esteem

A

yes, if it is for something that someone values

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21
Q

low self-esteem leads to..

A

drug use, depression and suicide

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22
Q

inflated self-esteem is seen in..

A

gang members, terrorists and bullies

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23
Q

inflated self-esteem can be due to..

A

conceal inner insecurities

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24
Q

identity vs role confusion stag

A

stage relevant to identify formation (ages 12-20)

adolescents try to figure out who they are & form basic identities

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25
Q

Charles Cooney - theory

A

looking-glass self → one’s sense of self develops from how others perceive them

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26
Q

who developed the idea of social behaviourism

A

George Herbert Mead

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27
Q

social behaviourism

A

the mind & self emerge through the process of communicating with others

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28
Q

stages of self-development (Mead)

A

preparatory stage: imitation (children)

play stage: take on the roles of others through playing

game stage: understanding the responsibilities of others

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29
Q

what is the generalized other

A

the common behavioural expectations of general society

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30
Q

what is socialization

A

process where people learn to be proficient and functional members of society

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31
Q

what allows for a culture to pass on its values through generations

A

socialization

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32
Q

significance of feral children

A

feral children: not raised with human contact or care

shows the importance of socialization & social contact

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33
Q

what are norms

A

unspoken/spoken rules/expectations for the members of society

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34
Q

normative behaviour

A

social behaviours that meet the ideal standard

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35
Q

what are sanctions

A

rewards and punishments for behaviour that align/go against norms

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36
Q

how is normative behaviour reinforced

A

through sanctions

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37
Q

formal vs informal norms

A

formal: written down → laws
informal: generally understood → no punishments

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38
Q

mores vs folkways

A

mores: important for society’s benefit, strictly enforced
folkways: less important but shape everyday behaviour

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39
Q

taboo - norms

A

violation of norm is forbidden + punishable

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40
Q

is there universal taboo

A

no

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41
Q

what is anomie

A

social condition where there are no firm guidelines for norms/values → minimal moral ethic

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42
Q

anomie is characteristic of societies where..

A

social cohesion is less pronounced → individualism, disintegration of social bonds

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43
Q

non-normative behaviour

A

seen as incorrect → challenges shared values & institutions → threatens social structure & cohesion

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44
Q

sick individuals seen as deviant, what perspective is this

A

functionalist

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45
Q

differential association - deviance

A

deviance is a learned behaviour resulting from social interactions

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46
Q

how are you more likely to partake in deviant behaviours

A

when your close groups do & they condone their behaviour

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47
Q

criticism of differential association

A

individuals are reduced to their environments → doesn’t consider people as rational actors

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48
Q

labeling theory - deviance

A

deviance is the result of society’s response to a person, instead of their actions

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49
Q

which deviance theory is in accordance with the interactionist perspective

A

labeling theory - social constuct

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50
Q

criticism of labeling theory

A

considers deviance to be an automatic process → ignores individuals’ ability to resist social expectations

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51
Q

structural strain theory - deviance

A

deviance is the result of experienced strain (individual or structural)

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52
Q

criticism of structural strain theory

A

not applicable to social goals, only economic

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53
Q

what is collective behaviour

A

when social norms for the situation are absent/unclear

people engage in actions that are usually unacceptable

loss of the individual

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54
Q

who coined collective behaviour

A

Herbert Blumer

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55
Q

most common example of collective behaviour

A

crowds

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56
Q

herd behaviour

A

seen in crowds - emotional & loss of rational thought

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57
Q

acting crowds

A

join together for a purpose - protestors

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58
Q

casual crowds

A

not interacting - spontaneous

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59
Q

conventional crowds

A

gather for a planned event - football game

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60
Q

expressive crowd

A

gather to express emotion - funeral attenders

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61
Q

common theme in collective behaviour

A

panic

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62
Q

what is a public

A

a group of individuals discussing a single issue → share ideas

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63
Q

what is a mass

A

group whose formation is promptly through the efforts of mass media

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64
Q

what is a social movement

A

collective behaviour with the intention of promoting cab ge

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65
Q

2 types of social movement

A

active & expressive movements

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66
Q

forms of collective behaviour

A

crowds

publics

masses

social movements

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67
Q

fad vs trend

A

trends are longer lived & often lead to permanent social change

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68
Q

mass hysteria

A

collective delusion of a threat that spreads through emotions

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69
Q

what is moral panic

A

specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order

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70
Q

what is a social agent

A

social forces that influence lives & development of culture

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71
Q

examples of agents of socialization

A

family, school, workplace, friends, religion, technology

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72
Q

assimilation

A

individual gives up their culture to adopt another culture

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73
Q

amalgamation

A

majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

unique cultural group is formed

74
Q

multiculturalism

A

endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions

75
Q

pros and cons of multiculturalism

A

pro: promotes diversity
con: hinders cohesiveness of a society

76
Q

what is a subculture

A

segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions/values that differs from society

77
Q

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

A

form the basis of ethical behaviour

steps cannot be skipped

people early surpass the fourth stage (six stages)

78
Q

attribution theory

A

attempts to explain how individuals view behaviour (own and others)

79
Q

dispositional vs situational attribution

A

dispositional - attributed due to internal reasons

situational - attributed due to external causes

80
Q

when do we use dispositional vs situational

A

dispositional for others and situational for ourselves (cutting ourselves some slack)

81
Q

3 factors that determine whether we attribute behaviour to internal/external causes

A

consistency

distinctiveness

consensus

82
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of internal causes

83
Q

actor-observer bias

A

tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personality

84
Q

self-serving bias

A

attributing successes to ourselves and failures to others

85
Q

optimism bias

A

belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us

86
Q

just world phenomenon

A

tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve

87
Q

hindsight bias

A

tendency to believe an event was predictable after it has already occured

88
Q

halo effect

A

tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures

89
Q

physical attractiveness stereotype

A

specific type of halo effect

tendency to rate attractive people more favourably

90
Q

social perception

A

understanding go others in our social world

responsible for our judgments about other people

91
Q

social cognition

A

ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception

92
Q

false consensus

A

when we assume that everyone agrees with what we do

93
Q

projection bias

A

happens when we assume others have the same beliefs as us

94
Q

stereotypes

A

oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics

95
Q

prejudice

A

thoughts, attitudes and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience

96
Q

discrimination

A

acting a certain way toward a group

97
Q

affirmative actions

A

policies that take race/sex etc. into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions

98
Q

reverse discrimination

A

“discriminating against the majority”

99
Q

institutional discrimination

A

unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations

100
Q

three components of attitudes

A

ABCs

affect (feelings)

behavioural tendencies

cognition (beliefs)

101
Q

at the core of prejudice is..

A

fear or frustration

102
Q

scapegoats

A

displaced aggression is directed at these people

usually marginalized communities

103
Q

where do stereotypes stem from

A

from our mental shortcuts that simplify our conceptualizations of the world

104
Q

illusory correlation

A

created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases

105
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy

A

behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes

106
Q

stereotype threat

A

self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

107
Q

ethnocentrism

A

judging people from another culture by the standards of one’s own cultureC

108
Q

cultural relativism

A

judging another culture based on its own standards

109
Q

primary vs secondary groups

A

primary: smaller, long-term, emotional interactions
secondary: impersonal, larger, short-term

110
Q

expressive vs instrumental functions

A

expressive: meets emotional needs (primary group)
instrumental: pragmatic needs (secondary group)

111
Q

reference group

A

standard measure that people compared themselves to

112
Q

what is a dyad

A

smallest social group - 2 members

113
Q

what is an aggregate

A

people who live in the same space but do not interact

114
Q

what is a category

A

people who share characteristics but do not interact

115
Q

rationalization

A

process by which tasks are broken down into component parts

116
Q

McDonalization

A

rationalization of fast food production

117
Q

iron law of oligarchy

A

as organizations become more complex, they become more conservative and less able to adapt

118
Q

social facilitation effect

A

doing simple tasks better/faster in the presence of others

119
Q

deindividuation

A

people losing their sense of restraint & individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group (mob mentality)

120
Q

factors that create the ideal conditions for deindividuation (3)

A

large group size

physical anonymity

arousing activities (escalation)

alcohol + social roles help as well

121
Q

Kitty Genovese case

A

someone was killed and no one called the police because they assumed their peers already did

122
Q

bystander effect

A

person is less likely to provide help if there are other bystanders

123
Q

diffusion of responsibility is associated with what effect

A

bystander effect

124
Q

social loafing

A

people exert less effort if they are in a group than if they were individually accountable

125
Q

group polarization

A

a group tends to lean towards the more extreme versions of the average view they had before

126
Q

why does group polarization occur (2)

A

informational influence

normative influence

127
Q

what is informational influence

A

the most common ideas that emerge are the ones that favour the dominant viewpoint

128
Q

what is normative influence

A

social desirability → internalizing the group’s belief system to fit in

129
Q

groupthink

A

state of harmony within a group → state of agreement

130
Q

conformity

A

adjusting behaviour/thinking based on others

131
Q

Solomon Asch experiment

A

group pressure, people started saying the wrong answer when people around them did the same

132
Q

Stanley Milgram experiment

A

giving shocks to a “learner”

even though it was questionable to hurt someone, not many people questioned it → obedience

133
Q

factors that affect obedience in Milgrim’s experiment (4)

A

distance of learner

distance of authority figure

wardrobe of authority figure

office location (environment)

134
Q

ways that behaviour can be motivated by social influences (3)

A

compliance

identification

internalization

135
Q

normative social influence

A

people conforming because they wanted to be liked/accepted by others

136
Q

informational social influecne

A

complying because we want to do the right thing and feel like others know something we don’t

more likely to apply to new situations

137
Q

status

A

socially defined positions within society

138
Q

master status

A

dominates other statuses and determines one’s general position in society

139
Q

social roles

A

expectations for people of a given social status

140
Q

utilitarian organization

A

members get paid for their efforts (business)

141
Q

normative organization

A

motivate membership based on morally relevant goals MADD

142
Q

coercive organizations

A

members do not have a choice in joining (prison)

143
Q

impression management

A

conscious/unconscious process where people attempt to manage their own image by influencing the perceptions of others

144
Q

self-handicapping

A

strategy where people create excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

145
Q

dramaturgical perspective

A

stems from symbolic interactionism

we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others

our identities are dependent on our interactions with others

146
Q

front vs back stage social interactions

A

front stage: playing a role and using impression management

back stage: letting our guards down and being ourselves

147
Q

warning colours in animals

A

bright colours that show predators that they are toxic

148
Q

pheromones - animals

A

chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate

149
Q

characteristics that foster attraction (3)

A

proximity, physical attractiveness & similarity

150
Q

mere exposure effect

A

people prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli → makes someone like someone else better

151
Q

predictors for aggressive behaviour (3)

A

genetic

neural

biochemical

152
Q

frustration aggression principle

A

when someone is blocked from achieving a goal → aggression

153
Q

foraging behaviour

A

search for food resources by animals

must be adaptable → employ learning behaviour

154
Q

inclusive fitness

A

defined by the number of offspring one has and how it supports them (& how they support others)

155
Q

altruistic behaviours

A

helps ensure the success/survival of the rest of a social group

156
Q

game theory

A

is used to try and predict large, complex systems

157
Q

elaboration likelihood model

A

explains when people will be influenced by logic and when people will be influenced by superficial characteristics

158
Q

things that have an impact on persuasion (3)

A

message, source and target characteristics

159
Q

message characteristics

A

features of a message → logic, length of a speech and grammar

160
Q

source characteristics

A

where is the knowledge coming from? credentials of the person delivering the message

161
Q

target characteristics

A

characteristics of the person receiving the speech (intelligent people are less easily persuaded)

162
Q

two cognitive routes that persuasion follows

A

central and peripheral routes

163
Q

central route - persuasion

A

people are persuaded by the content of the argument

164
Q

peripheral route - persuasion

A

when people focus on superficial characteristics of the speech/speaker

165
Q

which route has longer lasting persuasive outcomes

A

central

166
Q

social cognitive theory

A

theory of behaviour change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their environment

167
Q

reciprocal determinism

A

interaction between a person’s behaviours, personal factors and environment

168
Q

what does behavioural genetics try to figure out

A

how the genotype and environment affect the phenotype

169
Q

what studies are used in behavioural genetics

A

twin studies

adoption studies

170
Q

what is compared in twin studies

A

traits in monozygotic and dizygotic twins

looks at genetic effects and environmental

171
Q

what happens in adoption studies

A

adopted individuals are compared to both their genetic and environmental relatives

172
Q

transgenesis

A

introduction of an outside gene

173
Q

common definition of intelligence

A

ability to learn from experience, problem-solve and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

174
Q

Francis Galton - theory of intelligence

A

believed that intelligence had a strong biological basis → could be quantified with cognitive tasks

175
Q

Stanford-Binet intelligence scale

A

now known as the IQ test

176
Q

Charles Spearman

A

coined the term general intelligence (aka g)

someone would high g would do well on lots of different measures of cognitive ability

177
Q

Raymond Cattell - intelligence

A

proposed fluid intelligence (ability to think on feet) and crystallized intelligence (ability to recall already learned info)

178
Q

Howard Gardner - intelligence

A

theory on multiple intelligences

179
Q

intellectual disability

A

those who score under 70 on IQ and have difficulty adapting to everyday demands of life

180
Q

life course perspective

A

looks at how key events in a person’s life unfold over time and lead to a person’s development

181
Q

when does learned helplessness occur

A

when someone has low self-efficacy and external locus of control

182
Q

rules that govern appropriate emotional responses

A

display rules

Psychology/Sociology - MCAT (7 decks)

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