Charles I: The politicisation of the New Model Army Flashcards
What were the key ideas of the Independents?
- Rejected the idea of an Established, state-run Church
- Regarded a true church as a gathering of ‘true believers’ - a voluntary association of like-minded people who agreed to form a church and to worship together according to their own lights
- Liberty of conscience -> more free and diverse religious thoughts
Who did the Independents separate from?
The Established Church, whether Episcopalian or Presbyterian, and formed their own independent, self-governing congregations
What was the difference between Scottish and English Presbyterian settlements?
- Scottish Presbyterians settlement was governed by Divine Law
- English Presbyterians had a settlement governed by Parliament
Who moulded the New Model Army?
Created by Parliament in early 1645 by merging three regional armies, with the aim of making the war effort more effective
Who commanded the New Model Army?
Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell
- quickly moulded the NMA into an efficient, disciplined fighting force ith an unusually high degree of motivation
How were officers promoted in the NMA?
On merit rather than their status in society
- godliness was a key factor too
When did the NMA inflict a decisive defeat on the Royalists?
At the Battle of Naseby in June 1645, bringing the First Civil War to an end the following year
When was Fairfax made commander-in-chief?
In July 1647
Who were the rank and file?
Ordinary soldiers who tended towards slightly more radical religious and political ideas
Who were the Grandees of the NMA?
Top of the hierarchy in the NMA
- Sir Thomas Fairfax, Lord General of the Army
- Oliver Cromwell, Second in Command
- Henry Ireton, A leading general
How much did the NMA cost to maintain?
- £53,000 per month
- paid soldiers 8 pence a day
- led to mutiny and anger as many soldiers were not paid
What did the Presbyterian faction attempt to do in Spring 1647?
In March 1647, the presbyterian faction in Parliament misguidedly attempted to disband the New Model Army without first settling arrears of pay, guaranteeing indemnity from persecution for actions carried out under orders or making any provision for the relief of wounded soldiers
Who was enraged by the ‘first Presbyterian mistake’?
The common soldiery, and ensured that many of their officers would sympathise with their grievances
What was the impact of the ‘first Presbyterian mistake’?
- Deepened the division between the NMA and Parliament
- As Parliament failed to address the army’s concerns, its statements became progressively more radical
What were the consequences of the March 1647 mistake?
- In March 1647, the petition was circulated amongst the soldiers setting out their grievances
- Many officers supported the petition but Parliament demanded its suppression
- Those who continued to support it were condemned as ‘enemies of the state’
What did the army do in response to Parliament’s condemnation of their grievances?
Eight cavalry regiments elected two Agitators each to convey the soldiers’ views to the senior officers, the Grandees
- can be seen as a form of internal democracy
How did Parliament respond to the Agitators?
- Parliament was unnerved at the scale of unrest, yet foolishly persisted in trying to disband the Army without settlement of the soldier’s grievances
- Presbyterian MPs went so far as to attempt to mobilise the London militia against the army
Why were common soldiers electing representatives significant?
Suggested that the Army had become political
- committed to have a say in the outcome of a political settlement
- the regular soldiers would have a say in the destiny of the nation
What did Fairfax agree to hold in June 1647?
Under pressure from the Agitators, Fairfax agreed to hold a rendezvous of the Army at Newmarket in June 1647
What was the radical response of the army?
A few days before the rendezvous on 2nd June 1647, Cornet George Joyce, an Agitator from Fairfax’s on regiment, rode with 500 troopers to Holmby House in Northamptonshire to secure the person of the King and took him to Newmarket where he was held in protective custody
What was the significance of Agitator Cornet George Joyce seizing the king?
Parliament could no longer negotiate with Charles without the Army’s approval, directly stopping them from reaching a settlement
How did Cromwell and other senior officers react to the kidnap of the king?
Although it was accepted as a fait accompli by Cromwell and other senior officers, the Army’s seizure of the King was carried out on the initiative of the Agitators
- the army as acting like an independent body
What did the Army rank and file produce on 4 June 1647?
A Humble Remonstrance, declaring that they would not disband until their grievances were met
- asking not to be disbanded without pay and asking for indemnity
How did the Commons’ respond to The Humble Remonstrance?
By ordering the petition to stop being circulated, but regular soldiers kept circulating and reading it, to the anger of the aristocrats nobles and landlords in the Commons
What did Denzil Holles produce?
The Declaration of Dislike, in which he aggressively referred to the NMA as “enemies of the State and disturbers to the public peace”
What were the consequences of the Declaration of Dislike?
- antagonised the NMA to an extreme extent
- until the Declaration, a compromise could have been reached between Army Independents and Parliamentary Presbyterians
What was the significance of the kidnapping on the relationship between Parliament and the Army?
It showed that Parliament could not negotiate with the King without the Army’s proposal
What was the significance of the kidnapping on the power of the soldiery?
It showed the power of the rank and file soldiery
- and led to opposition against the army as ordinary people saw them as a threat to social order
Who did the rank and file soldiers get their ideas from?
The Levellers who started infiltrating the rank and file of the NMA after initially being separate
Who were the Levellers?
A radical, London-based political grouping that grew in popularity amongst the common people in the city from 1646 onwards
What signifies support for the Levellers?
They produced many pamphlets, a newspaper and organised petitions that got 40,000 signatures
What did the Levellers want militarily?
Came into existence due to the civil war and wanted to go further than the Presbyterian and Independent parties and the Grandees of the army
What did the Levellers criticise about the Army leadership?
For trying to reach an accommodation with the King, as seen with The Heads
What did the Levellers seek in terms of religion and politics?
The Levellers sought not only toleration for the sects, supporting the liberty of conscience, but the abolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords, and the establishment of the supremacy of the House of Commons, which was to be made responsible to an expanded electorate
What are the Levellers best understood as?
Revolutionary democrats
When was the Heads of the Proposals?
July 1647
What was the Heads of proposals?
A set of propositions drawn up by officers of the New Model Army and submitted to Charles I, independently of parliament, as a basis for a constitutional settlement after the King’s defeat in the First Civil War
What encouraged the Army to propose the Heads of Proposals?
- The King was now under the control of the army
- Cromwell was eager to find out what conditions the King would acquiesce to if his authority was restored
- The King appeared willing to compromise
What was the Heads of the Proposals designed to do?
To check the powers of the executive, to set up regularly elected parliaments and to restore a non-compulsory Episcopalian settlement
Who drafted the Heads of the Proposals?
Ireton and Lambert
What were the main points of the Heads of Proposals?
- Episcopacy would be retained in church government but power of bishops reduced
- Parliamentary control of the army and navy
- All acts enforcing church attendance, the use of the Book of Common Prayer and the forbidding of holding religious meetings elsewhere would be repealed -> Covenant revoked
- A council of State would be established to conduct foreign policy and would need Parliament’s authority to conduct war or peace
- Biennial Parliaments to be called which would sit for a minimum of 120 days
- Act of Oblivion that exempted only a few Royalists from punishment
How did the King regard the Heads of the Proposals?
Regarded them as too restrictive and rejected them outright
Who did Ireton and Cromwell lose the support of during the negotiations?
Of the Army radicals, who were disappointed that the proposals made no concessions to Leveller demands for a wider franchise, and who criticised the Grandees “servility” in their dealings with the King
What did Agitators with close links to the Levellers produce and when?
- In October 1647, Agitators with close links to the Levellers in five cavalry regiments produced a pamphlet, The Case of the Army Truly Stated
- circulated in the Army and attacked the leadership for their continuing attempts to settle with Charles
What were the Levellers angry at the Presbyterian Parliament for?
The attempt to disband the army and negotiating too slowly with the King which influenced one of the Agitators with Leveller links, Cornet Joyce, to seize the King
What were the Levellers angry with the Independent Army leadership for?
Negotiating too slowly and too leniently with the King
When was the Agreement of the People?
October 1647
What was the Agreement of the People?
A Leveller-inspired document arguing that sovereign power should reside in the people of England rather than with the discredited King or Parliament, consisting of four clauses
- calling for universal male suffrage
Why did the Levellers produce the Agreement of the People?
As an alternative settlement to the heads of the Proposals
What were the four clauses of the Agreement of the People?
- The People’s representative (i.e. MPs) should be elected in proportion to the population of their constituencies
- The existing Parliament should be dissolved on 30 September 1648
- Future Parliaments should be elected biennially and sit every other year from April to September
- The biennial Parliament (consisting of a single elected House) should be the supreme authority in the land, with powers to make or repeal laws, appoint officials and conduct domestic and foreign policy
What constraints did the Agreement of the People want placed on Parliament?
- It was not to interfere with freedom of religion
- it was not to press men to serve in the armed forces
- it could not prosecute anyone for their part in the recent war
- it was not o exempt anyone from the ordinary course of the law
- all laws passed by Parliament should be for the common good
How could the Agreement of the Peoples be described as?
A complete OVERHAUL of the British political system
Why did the Levellers’ political radicalism stop a settlement being achieved?
- Their influence on Cornet Joyce who forcefully stopped negotiations with Charles
- Because of the Levellers making demands to which Charles could never agree, as evidenced by The Agreement of the People
How did the leadership show the radicals they were listening to their demands?
By producing the Solemn Engagement, a document from the Army telling Parliament that the Army would not disband without adequate pay, indemnity etc.
What was the impact of the Solemn Engagement?
This kept unity in the Army, weakening the influence of the radicals, as their demands had been achieved, to an extent - the Army leadership had listened and defied their superiors, Parliament
When were the Putney Debates?
October-November 1647
What triggered the Putney Debates?
- Many in the army, such as the Levellers, thought this did not go far enough and demanded full political equality for all men
- Debated whether the Army should adopt The Agreement of the People
- This led to tense debates at Putney
Who were the debates at Putney between?
Between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and radical Levellers like Colonel Thomas Rainsborough on the other
What was the outcome of the Putney Debates?
Ultimately broke up without reaching a resolution between the radical Levellers and the Grandees
What did Ireton promote as a moderate alternative at the Putney debates?
Ireton promoted the Heads of Proposals as a moderate alternative to the Leveller-inspired Agreement of the People
What was the main difference between the Heads of Proposals and Agreement of the People?
The extent to which democratisation is extended to the people
What happened to Ireton’s proposals six years later?
They were incorporated into the Instrument of Government - the first written constitution that defined Cromwell’s powers as Lord Protector
What was Ireton’s proposed religious settlement identical to?
The religious settlement proposed by Ireton in 1647 was virtually identical to that finally adopted in the Toleration Act of 1689
- allowed most dissenters - though not all - the freedom to worship publicly, provided they took a simplified version of the oath of allegiance
What cut the Putney debates short?
The King fled from NMA custody -> the influence of the Leveller radicals stopped Charles negotiating a settlement
Why were the Levellers less important now?
The Army needed to unite to recapture the King, and prepare for the possibility of a possible Second Civil War
- as a result the NMA were again united
- Army commanders were now needed again to recapture the King
What was Charles’ response to these developments?
- Charles would not accept his defeat at the hands of Parliament in the Civil War
- he was terrified by the rise of the Levellers, and did not think the Grandees’ Heads of the Proposals would give him the full-blown restoration of his power he wanted
Where did Charles flee to and when?
To the Isle of Wight in November 1647, mistakenly thinking he had a hotbed of Royalist sympathy there, but actually ended up in the custody of supporters of Parliament
- Charles’ duplicity by escaping also scuppered a settlement
Was Charles stopped from trying to re-start the Civil War?
No, this did not stop him from engaging in plots to re-start the Civil War
Which army did Charles try to obtain at the Isle of Wight?
From Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight Charles tried to obtain an army of Irish Catholics to fight for him in England
What treaty did Charles sign and when?
On 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty - the Engagement - with the Scots, who would invade England in April 1648
What did Charles promise the Scots?
That Presbyterianism would take over the Church of England
- Church authority had broken down so it would need to be rebuilt along Presbyterian lines
What happened to the Levellers when Charles fled?
The Levellers became almost irrelevant, as their criticism of the ‘Grandees’ were swept to one side
How did the Levellers still try to stir up trouble?
By distributing ‘mutinous’ pamphlets amongst the soldiers - but the Ware mutiny was ruthlessly put down by Cromwell in November 1647
What did the Grandees prepare to be presented to the soldiers in place of the Agreement of the People?
A new manifesto where every soldier was to be asked to sign a declaration of loyalty to Fairfax and the Army Council
How many regiments signed the Grandees’ declaration?
Most soldiers in the seven regiments at the rendezvous readily signed the Grandees’ declaration
What happened to two unauthorised regiments who tried to attend the Corkbush redezvous?
Soldiers of both regiments arrived with copies of the Agreement of the People and the motto “England’s Freedom, Soldier’s Rights” stuck into their hats
- the ringleaders were arrested and three were condemned to death at an improvised court-martial
What happened to radical political activity by this point?
With the fleeing of the King on November 11, radical political activity died away, as it gave the Army Grandees the best possible reason for restoring discipline amongst the rank and file given the urgent need to re-capture the King
What did Parliament pass and when?
Parliament was again united: in January 1648 Parliament passed the Vote of No Addresses - there would be NO further negotiations with the King
How had Charles misjudged the mood of the presbyterian party in Parliament?
They united with the army and the Independents again to see off the threat he posed
Who did the Second Civil War unite?
The Second Civil War of 1648 united the army and Parliament once more
- this did not mean that the army ceased to play a role in politics, or accepted Parliament’s rule
What did radical Army officers do on 6th December 1648?
Forcibly purged Parliament of the King’s supporters and brought his trial and execution for inflicting a second war upon the nation, leading to the establishment of a republican government in England from 1649-53
What would happen to the political influence of the Leveller movement?
It would grow again amongst the rank-and-file of the army in 1648-49, and led to violent mutinies which had to be suppressed by Fairfax and Cromwell
