Charles I: The First Civil War Flashcards
What were the four reasons for Parliament’s victory in the civil war?
1) Parliament found that hierarchical, pre-modern armies were ineffective, it responded with the Self-Denying Ordinance (April 1645) -> meritocracy introduced
2) The re-organisation of Parliament’s armies, with the creation of the New Model Army (Jan-March 1645) -> only side willing to take a dramatic transformation of their forces
3) Parliament had access to greater financial resources than the king, and used theirs more efficiently (London etc)
4) Parliament formed an alliance with the Scottish Covenanters (22k troops)
5) Control of Royal Navy = key supplier + hindered Charles’ rearmament and supply efforts
What was Parliament’s alliance with the Scottish Covenanters called?
The Solemn League and Covenant
When was the alliance between Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters formed?
August 1643
Why were the Peace Party opposed to the Scottish aliance?
Don’t want to prolong the war as part of their overarching objective for a quick finish
Who were the architects of the Scottish alliance?
The War Party
- John Pym was instrumental in organising the alliance
What did the Parliamentarians promise the Scots in return?
A Presbyterian settlement
- mirror image of the Scottish kirk in doctrine and structure
- repeat of the Bishops’ Wars could be avoided
What else were Parliament’s MPs and officers required to do?
Swear an oath to uphold the Covenant
In what context was the Scottish alliance formed in?
The collapse in religious and political authority
What was a key difference between the Peace Party and the War Party?
- The Peace Party were more conservative, didn’t want a complete overhaul of the social order and preferred a state-run Church -> become political Presbyterians
- The War Party were somewhat more radical in their religious views -> favoured the ‘liberty of conscience’
Why can the War Party’s views be classified as slightly radical?
The concept of the ‘liberty of conscience’ is radical in that it is not based on uniformity or conformity but a more democratic nature
How did the alliance with the Scottish Covenanters benefit Parliament’s cause?
It brought a Scottish army of 22,000 men into the war
Who was Leslie and what did he do?
Earl of Leven and in January 1644, he commanded the Scottish Army and crossed the English border
Whose army was besieged at York and when?
In July 1644, the Earl of Newcastle’s army was besieged at York, and Prince Rupert’s forces were destroyed at Marston Moor
Which Scottish noble supported Charles?
The Earl of Montrose
How did this Scottish noble support Charles?
Led Royalist forces north of the border against the Covenanters
- his army won multiple victories between 1644 and 1645
Why were the victories of this Scottish noble insignificant?
The little material gain and support from Charles saw the highlanders in Montrose’s force slowly leave the army to return to their homeland
Who did Charles surrender to when he was defeated in April 1646?
Not to Parliament’s forces, but to the Scots led by David Leslie at Newark
- astute political leader
- despite unsuccess militarily, he could play for time politically
How was Montrose’s army crushed?
A Covenanter army of 6000 troops returned from England and crushed Montrose’s remaining forces at Philiphaugh in September 1645, ending Charles’ military hopes in Scotland
How did the Civil War bring chaos to England?
The existing social and political hierarchy broke down - for a time there was no government and no judicial system
What was the impact of the Civil War on the lives of people?
- In addition to deaths on the battlefield (4% of England’s population)
- deaths followed in the wake of the armies’ disruption of life
- 85,000 left homeless
What happened to the land owned by Royalist landlords?
Local royalist landlords got defeated in battle and had their land taken away as a punishment by Parliament
- across much of the country landholding families who had ruled their areas for centuries were gone
How had power been slipping during and after the civil war?
It had been slipping from the hands of the pre-war governing elites - the greater gentry, that is the bigger landlords in the counties, and the greater merchants in the towns
- collapse in religious and political authority
What were the impacts of the defeat of the King and the royalists?
Meant that in London, some provincial towns, and many counties, power passed to the lesser gentry and smaller traders
What was the structure of the Royalist army?
- Regiments were led by local landlords grouping together and conscripting local peasants to fight for them
- The aristocracy provided the generals because of their high social rank which gave them the right to lead armies
- Their military knowledge was incompetent as it was passed down to them by previous aristocratic military commanders
- this traditional command structure resulted in poor, inexperienced leadership
What were the weaknesses of the Royalist party?
- Areas under Royalist control generally weaker
- Clubmen, men who tried to defend their localities against excesses of both armies, particularly hampered Royalist forces who were seen as more exploitative of local communities than the disciplined NMA
- Commissions of Array of dubious legality: some felt Royalists lacked legal weight to make others join their forces
- Also faced divisions; e.g. Henrietta Maria and Charles’ advisor Edward Hyde led to incoherent policy.
Why were Parliament just as ineffective for most of the war?
- Parliament’s armies adopted the same hierarchical organisation
- led to stalemates, inconclusive battles and military paralysis
- each had an aristocrat as a general and the local gentry as officers
- the regular soldiers were conscripts, often forced to fight against their will, and were often unenthusiastic about the cause
What is one similarity between Parliamentarians and the Royalists?
They were both feudally based, relying on conscription of peasants and high social standing military commanders
Who were the Peace Party?
Aristocrats whose positions relied on the existing social order and argued for a limited war against the King
What were the Peace Party’s approach to the war?
- A cautious approach
- The outcome of the war should be decided by negotiation with the King from a position of strength rather than by an outright military victory over him
- wanted to make the King realise he was in a position of weakness
- unwilling to inflict a decisive military defeat
- win the war quickly without losing the achievements of 1641 that dismantled the worst successes of Personal Rule
Who were some key individuals in the Peace Party?
- Denzil Holles (led them)
- Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex
- Edward Montague, 2nd Earl of Manchester
How strong was the Peace Party’s position?
They were the strongest party/faction in Parliament until 1645
- the Self-Denying Ordinance and the creation of the New Model Army in 1645 represented a defeat for them
Why did the Peace party co-operate with the Scots?
In the hope of obtaining a socially-conservative Presbyterian settlement in England under the King - and continued to negotiate with the King after his defeat
What were the key ideas of MP Denzil Holles (peace party)?
- horrified by the idea of a transference of the government of the state from the king and the ruling families to the Parliamentary leaders
- felt that now that the ‘evil advisors’ were out of the way, Charles should be given the benefit of the doubt and returned to full power
What were the key ideas of Robert Devereux (peace party) ?
- England needed to get back to normality
- Taxes should be reduced, as part of a shift back to traditional forms of governance
- The NMA was not only too expensive to maintain but was also a hotbed of radicals who threaten the natural social order
- it should be disbanded at the earliest opportunity
What were the key ideas of Edward Montague? (peace party)
- Victory could not have been achieved without Parliament’s Scottish allies
- The Solemn League and Covenant offers the best chance of healing the divisions in the country and guaranteeing social stability
- A single national Presbyterian Church would provide a framework for ensuring religious unity, and will help to stamp out the troublesome radical sects
Who were the War party?
Favoured confrontation with the King and an outright military victory to impose terms rather than the negotiated settlement
What was the War Party’s approach to the war?
- aimed to inflict decisive defeats on the King and force him to accept their terms
- wanted a stronger hand at the negotiations
- wanted to fight the war effectively and thoroughly
- threatened the established social hierarchy
What was the War Party’s approach to the Scottish settlement?
The War Party actively supported parliament’s alliance with Scotland until it became apparent that the alliance was unlikely to bring a swift military victory and that the primary objective of the Scots was to secure a Presbyterian church settlement in England
Who were key individuals in the War Party?
- led by Oliver Cromwell
- John Pym
- John Hampden
Who were losing deference to landlords?
Peasants were increasingly losing deference to landlords and were increasingly rebellious against them from 1640 onwards
- did not fight enthusiastically for them
What emerged as a result of the end of deference?
Constitutional royalism
- emerged from a desire to support the landlords against rebellious peasants
Why was the First civil War a stalemate?
- Most of the campaigns were inconclusive
- Small victories on both sides
- between 1642 and late 1644, the war was indecisive
When was the Battle of Marston Moor?
2 July 1644
What was the outcome of the Battle of Marston Moor?
- A significant victory - it turned the tide of the war in favour of Parliament -> had political significance
- It firmly established Cromwell’s reputation as a fighting general by showing that in order for Parliament to win a different sort of army, led by a different sort of commander, was needed
Which two political leaders had Parliament lost by 1644?
- June 1643: John Hampden died
- December 1643: John Pym died of cancer
Who became uncomfortable following Marston Moor?
Many officers and soldiers were uncomfortable about the proposed imposition of a Presbyterian Church settlement on England
How did the old ‘peace party’ view Scottish Presbyterianism?
As a way to bring the war to a rapid end, and thereby prevent further social upheaval
How did the ‘war’ party view Scottish Presbyterianism?
Came to regret their promises to the Scots and began to gain confidence in thinking they could win the Civil War on their own
What was the Earl of Manchester’s overriding conern?
- To maintain good relations with the Scots
- Marston Moor confirmed his opinion that the Scots were central to Parliament’s war effort
What did Cromwell become more critical of?
The Scottish army and its intolerance, and of parliament’s willingness to sacrifice religious freedom to please the Scots
- brought Cromwell into open dispute with Manchester and the Scots accused him of promoting Independents in preference to Presbyterians
What did Manchester fail to do?
Manchester failed to capture the king at Newbury (1644) despite having superior armies
What did Manchester’s failure make clear for Cromwell?
That the generalship of aristocrats like Essex and Manchester could not bring about consistent victories
- winning the war required military leaders who were capable and willing to fight fiercely
- this realisation spurred on the War Party -> they reached the conclusion that it as time to get rid of the aristocratic commanders
What was Cromwell’s solution?
A meritocracy
When was the Self-Denying Ordinance passed?
April 1645 (by both Houses)
Who proposed the Self-Denying Ordinance?
Lord Saye and Sele in the Lords
What did the Self-Denying Ordinance say?
Anyone who sat in the Commons or Lords had to resign their army posts
- enabled Parliament to get rid of their existing commanders
- chose to keep only those who were effective
What did the Self-Denying ordinance pave the way for?
The meritocratic New Model Army
What are the two concepts central to the Self-Denying Ordinance?
- Meritocracy: Disallowing members of the aristocracy to also be generals in the army simply based on social status
- Godliness: more dedicated, enthusiastic and disciplined as they were driven by religious convictions
What was Cromwell’s new army made up?
Puritan volunteers rather than peasant conscripts who were committed to the cause, disciplined, enthusiastic and hardworking
- more mobile than its opponent with a stronger fighting spirit and morale
How did people perceive the formation of the New Model Army?
As not just a new way of organising for warfare, but as an attack on social hierarchy from a social and religious perspective
What did Cromwell quote about the New Model Army?
‘I had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for… than that which you call a “gentleman” and is nothing else’
What had Cromwell created with the NMA?
A disciplined force from volunteers motivated by political and religious enthusiasm which was committed to total victory
What determined promotions?
Not just on the basis of military skill but on their godliness
- could become an experiment for wider social organisation (microcosm)
Who was appointed Lord general of the NMA?
Sir Thomas Fairfax
Who was appointed Major-General of Infantry?
Philip Skippon
What request did Parliament approve from Fairfax?
To appoint Cromwell as Lieutenant-General of Horse
Who led administrative and fiscal changes?
John Pym
What parliamentary ordinances were introduced?
Assessment, Excise, Sequestration, Compulsory Loans and Impressment (1643), bulstered by Parliamentary superiority
What is the first instance of the New Model Army’s success?
It inflicted a decisive defeat on the Royalists at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645
How did the NMA defeat Charles’ army at Naseby?
On 14 June 1645, near the village of Naseby in Northamptonshire, the main army of King Charles I was destroyed by the Parliamentarian New Model Army commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell
What was the social significance of the NMA?
Many saw its formation not just as a mew way of organising for warfare, but as an attack on social hierarchy from a social and religious perspective
What was found out after Naseby?
- Charles’ personal baggage was captured
- Correspondence was discovered which suggested he intended to seek support from the Irish Catholic Confederation through the Cessation Treaty, as well as other Catholic nations in Europe
What did Cromwell quote about the social structure of the NMA?
“I had rather a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for… than that which you call a “gentleman” and is nothing else”
What were the political repercussions of discovering correspondence?
Reinforces fears that Charles may have a Popish political-religious settlement
What kind of force had Cromwell made in the NMA?
A disciplined force from volunteers motivated by political and religious enthusiasm which was committed to total victory
What were the reasons for Parliament’s victory?
1) Parliament’s war finance
2) John Pym and alliances
3) The advantages of holding London
4) Local administration and local communities
5) Control of the navy
6) The New Model Army
How did Parliament’s war finance lead to their victory?
- Pym played a key role in laying foundations of Parliament’s wartime administration
- created new structures, such as the Committee of Both Kingdoms, and seeking to control finances to fund war efforts
- the Assessment, introduced in November 1642, raised substantial amounts of money
How did John Pym and alliances lead to Parliament’s victory?
- The Solemn League and Covenant with Scottish Covenanters in 1643
- Scots sent 22,000 men into England to aid Parliament
- Forced Charles’ northern army to remain in the north despite disappointments
What were the four parties competing to dominate the war?
- Presbyterians (Peace Party)
- Independents (War Party)
- Scots
- Royalists
What had the inconclusive First Civil War signified?
Made the army the most powerful political actor in the realm
- from 1646-48, a breach between the New Model Army and Parliament would open up and widen everyday
What % of the population died due to war-related causes during the English Civil War?
Around 4% of the total population died from war-related causes (that’s a lot!)
By 1644, which two key political leaders had Parliament lost? What is the significance of this?
June 1643: John Hampden died (pistol explosion)
Dec 1643: John Pym died (cancer)
Arguably deprived Parliament from its two most important leaders; led to the rise of factionalism
Why was John Hampden’s death significant?
- Was one of the most important leaders for Parliament.
Hampden was not as radical and was a respected moderate who could bridge divisions between factions. - With him gone, the division became clearer and the gap widened between various Parliamentary factions
Why was John Pym’s death significant?
- Pym was the architect behind the alliance with the Scots (Solemn League and Covenant; 1643), which was vital for Parliament’s military success.
- His death weakened Parliament’s ability to manage alliances, particularly with the Scots.
- Also he was largely successful in his fiscal policies that aided in Parliament’s victory and ability to uphold the NMA.
How did Pym contribute to the Parliamentary war effort in the English Civil War (two factors)?
- He created the foundations of victory by ensuring Parliament had sufficient financial and military resources.
- One of his last acts being to negotiate the Solemn League and Covenant that secured Scottish support, 22k troops + aided in Parliament’s victory.
How was the English Civil War complex?
Even though Parliament ‘won’ there were some serious divisions that had developed which meant the victory in 1646 was not conclusive
What led to divisions in the Parliamentary side which were not an issue in the Royalist side?
- The King was the political leader of the Royalists
- The process was complicated for the Parliamentarians; no single person could claim the right to make decisions, which gave rise to factions
What was the impact of having no clear leader on the Parliamentarian side?
- Meant that they were ridded with contradictions
- Difficult for parliament to negotiate with the King from a unified position
- Demonstrated the destabilising impact of the war for all sides
How had England been plunged into chaos from the Civil War?
- The existing social and political hierarchy broke down
- For a time there was no government, no judicial system
- Deference was severely undermined
- it brought serious economic problems
- The war had resulted in deep political divisions and was not resolved by 1646
What further conflicts would arise following the war?
- Divisions rooted in the war itself which arose from the different attitudes to the struggle
- radicalisation of the NMA
- the stubbornness of Charles
What Royalist divisions were there?
Between Cavaliers and moderate Royalists
Who did Charles tend to side with?
The Cavaliers
What did Cavaliers want?
A complete military victory over Parliament
What did Charles declare in 1643?
That Parliament was an illegal assembly
Who persuaded Charles to open what in 1644?
Edward Hyde persuaded Charles to open the ‘Oxford parliament’
What was the significance of the ‘Oxford Parliament’?
- This would show Charles could an intended to work with a parliament once the war was over
- It was also aimed to give legitimacy to the emergency measures being introduced to raise money and troops for the war
What did Charles promise following the war?
- Charles promised after the war there would be no return to a Personal Rule as the regime that triggered the war, nor would his fiscal policies during the war continue
- attempt to restore Charles’ credibility
How many MPs and peers supported the ‘Oxford parliament’?
175 MPs and 82 peers (ex-parliamentarian Royalists)
- in private, Charles wrote disparagingly of the initiative as ‘a mongrel Parliament’
What was the political spectrum in parliament like in 1643?
- Peace Party: aimed to end the war as quickly as possible through negotiation, without losing the achievements of 1641
- Non-aligned majority: floating voters
- War Party: aimed to negotiate terms from a position of strength to impose demands
- Radicals: aimed for permanent constitutional changes
How long did the War and Peace parties exist for?
From late 1642 to late 1644
When did the Peace Party become the Presbyterian party?
Around late 1643, with the signing of the Solemn League and Covenant
How did the War Party and NMA react to the Presbyterian church system?
They became increasingly hostile to a Presbyterian Church system, morphed into the independent party
What did the Presbyterians want?
The same thing as the Peace party
- want the Presbyterian religion and system of organisation
What did the Independents want?
The same thing as the War Party
- they also wanted an independent religion - religious tolerance for all strands of Protestantism
How would these religious divisions become more marked?
As the war drew to its climax
- it would continue to rupture the coalition which had fought Charles following his surrender to the Scots in 1646
Did Charles continue negotiations?
He continued to draw out the negotiations, ensuring a settlement could not be reached
What problems did the relationship between the Scots and English Presbyterians were there?
The Scots claimed that the Presbyterian Church was based on Divine Law - but Parliament made it clear to the Scots that any religious settlement in England would owe its legal and moral authority to Parliament
Why were the Independents alarmed by the state of affairs?
They disliked the authoritarianism of Scottish Presbyterianism, and wanted a considerable measure of religious tolerance
Did the Presbyterians want to disband the NMA and how did this differ with the Independents?
While the Presbyterians wanted to disband the NMA immediately, the Independents were willing to settle with the King and disband the New Model Army only if Charles accepted limitations to his power, and guaranteed tolerance for the sects
What were the 7 main advantages that controlling London gave to Parliament?
- Propaganda; centre of printing
- Finance; access to resources, e.g. City loans
- Manpower; 550,000 population (one in ten of English pop.); the London Trained Bands were vital at victory at Turnham Green
- Was England’s largest port
- Industry; was the capital of England’s chief industrial centre and was thereby a supplier of arms, clothes and shoes
- Administration; take advantage of already established centre of administration in the capital
- Legitimacy
In what way were the Royalists similar to Parliament in terms of divisions?
Royalists were similarly divided to Parliament (in terms of reaching a settlement and an outright victory); e.g. Henrietta Maria counselled a continued war until total victory was achieved WHILE Charles’ advisor Edward Hyde advised attempts at reaching a settlement with Parliament = led to incoherent policy.
Who - even while in exile - arguably held most sway with Charles?
Henrietta Maria; frequently stressed in letter that it would be a diminution of honour to negotiate
Why might Charles being a figurehead for the Royalists not be a strength? (counterpoint)
He was a poor military leader and made himself commander-in-chief. While this may have strengthened his position to demonstrate leadership act as a unifer, it meant he became more responsible for the defeat.
How much were members of the NMA paid? Significance?
Members were well paid, with infantry receiving eight pence a day = more motivated and higher morale compared to the king’s feudal army (peasants were eager to return to their land and tend to it before winter = more impatient?)
What was the issue with peasants in feudal armies?
They were less motivated and disciplined. They were eager to return back to their farm and tend to their land (especially in winter months) which would also make them far more impatient + prone to desertion (especially during planting and harvest seasons).
No true commitment to the cause; fighting for the king and hierarchical structure that actively oppresses them.
Why was godliness so vital in the NMA?
Members were deeply religious and genuinely believes they were fighting a just war in the name of God = higher morale, motivation, commitment, discipline etc.
What other benefits did the NMA have?
- More centralised with improved provisions of adequate food, clothing and other supplies.
- Discipline was strict and soldiers could be fined for swearing.
- Army contained an intelligence department responsible for collecting information about enemy movements.
