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AP Biology > Chapters 40-48 Study Guide > Flashcards

Chapters 40-48 Study Guide Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the four types of tissues, and what are some examples of each type?

A
  1. Nervous- nerve cells
  2. Epithelial- lining of the intestines, outer skin, lining of the blood vessels
  3. Connective-(3 types of fibers: collagenous, elastic, and reticular) fat, cartilage, blood, and bone
  4. Muscular-(2 types: cardiac and smooth) heart, walls of the digestive tract
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2
Q

List all the parts of the digestive system.

A

Oral cavity, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, liver, gall bladder, appendix, ascending and descending colon, rectum, stomach, pyloric sphincter, transverse colon, small intestine, anus, sigmoid colon, and cardiac orifice.

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3
Q

What are the three places that actively take part in digestion, and where are the enzymes that are used in digestion of food in these parts made?

A

Oral Cavity- Salivary Glands
Stomach- Gall Bladder/Liver
Small Intestine- I HAVE NO ANSWER!!

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4
Q

What are the four parts of the colon?

A

The ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon.

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5
Q

Where does deoxygenated blood come from?

A

The body

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6
Q

Where does oxygenated blood come from?

A

The lungs

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7
Q

What are some examples of barriers that prevent invaders from entering the system?

A

Mucus, oils, skin, hair, ear wax, tears, saliva, stomach acid, and sweat

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8
Q

What is the pathway of a nervous system response?

A

[paragraph]

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9
Q

List the parts of the brain.

A

Parietal lobe, cerebrum, corpus callosum, frontal lobe, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary, midbrain, the pons, the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, fissure, occipital lobe

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10
Q

What is the pathway that food takes in the digestive system?

A
  1. Oral Cavity/Mouth- food is put into the mouth, where it is masticated(chewd) and salivary glands produce amylase to break down sugars in the food. This is mechanical digestion, and the food is now bolus.
  2. The bolus goes down the esophagus(peristalsis- wave movements, helps move the food), where it is not digested, but just transported to the stomach.
  3. In the stomach, gastric juices(acidic, pH 2) and enzymes break down proteins, and the food becomes a soupy liquid called chyme. Walls inside the stomach are lined with mucus to prevent the acidity of the stomach and enzymes from digesting the organ.
  4. The chyme goes through the pyloric sphincter to the small intestines. The deodenum adds digestive juices and enzymes from the pancreas, gall bladder and liver. The Jejunem and Ileum absorb nutrients and some water. The hepatic portal vein filters the chyme though the liver.
  5. The chyme goes into the cecum, and then to the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon- where the rest of the water is absorbed and material is compacted. Material moves by peristalsis and is considered feces.
  6. Feces are stored in the rectum
  7. From the rectum, the feces exit the body via the anus.
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11
Q

Define mastication.

A

To grind, crush, and chew (food) with the teeth in preparation for swallowing.

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12
Q

Define peristalsis.

A

The involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating wavelike movements that push the contents of the canal forward.

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13
Q

What is bolus?

A

A bolus is a small rounded mass of a substance, especially of chewed food at the moment of swallowing.

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14
Q

What is chyme?

A

Chyme is the pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.

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15
Q

What are the parts of the respiratory system?

A

The parts of the respiratory system include the nasal cavity, the oral cavity, the pharynx, the larynx(esophagus), the trachea, the lungs, the left bronchus, the right bronchus, the bronchioles, the diaphram, and the alveoli.

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16
Q

What structure is shared by both the respiratory and digestive system?

A

The pharynx

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17
Q

Where does oxygenated blood enter into the heart?

A

Through the pulmonary veins

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18
Q

Where does deoxygenated blood enter the heart?

A

Through the superior and inferior vena cava

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19
Q

What is metabolism?

A

The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways.

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20
Q

What is thermoregulation?

A

Thermoregulation is the maitenance of internal body temperature within a tolerable range.

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21
Q

What is the definition of absorption?

A

The uptake of small nutrient molecules by an organism’s own body, the third main stage of food processing, following digestion.

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22
Q

Define digestion.

A

Digestion is the process of breaking down food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb.

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23
Q

What is a tropic hormone?

A

A hormone that has another endocrine gland as a target.

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24
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

The brain and the spinal cord.

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25
Q

Describe what it means to be autonomic.

A

The autonomic nervous system is a subdivision of the motor nervous system of vertebrates that regulates the internal environment, it consists of the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions.

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26
Q

What does it mean to be somatic?

A

The somatic nervous system is the branch of the motor division of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system composed of motor neurons that carry signals to skeletal muscles in resonse to external stimuli.

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27
Q

What is the resting potential?

A

The membrane potential characteristic of a nonconducting, excitable cell, with the inside of the cell more negative than the outside.

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28
Q

What is action potential?

A

Action potential is a rapid change in the membrane potential of an excitable cell, caused by stimulus-triggered, selective-opening and closing of voltage-sensitive gates in sodium and potassium ion channels.

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29
Q

What is acetylcholine?

A

One of the most common neurotransmitters; functions by binding to receptors and altering the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to specific ions, either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing the membrane.

30
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger released from the synaptic terminal of a neuron at a chemical synapse that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to and stimulates the postsynaptic cell.

31
Q

What are the differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic?

A

Sympathetic: One of the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system of vertebrates; generally increases energy expenditure and prepares the body for action.
Parasympathetic: One of the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system; generally enhances body activities that gain and conserve energy, such as digestion and reduced heart rate.

32
Q

What is the difference between endotherms and ectotherms?

A

Endotherms are animals such as mammals and birds that use metabolic heat to regulate body temperature. Ectotherms, on the other hand, use environmental energy and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature. Ectotherms are animals(other than birds), such as reptiles, fish, and amphibians.

33
Q

What are the connections between metabolism and thermoregulation?

A

l

34
Q

What are the different types of phagocytes and what is their role in the immune system?

A

There are four different types of phagocytes: neutrophils, macrophages, eosinophils, and dendritic cells. In the immune system, phagocytes:

  1. Recognize proteins of foreigners
  2. Eat invaders
  3. Produce antimicrobial proteins
  4. Initiate inflammation
35
Q

What is the difference between innate and acquired response?

A

The difference between innate and acquired response is that the acquired response is specific. The innate response consists of two parts, the first line and second line of defense, and the acquired response is the third line of defese.

36
Q

What are the parts of the excretory system?

A

Cortex, medulla, pelvis, inferior vena cava, adrenal gland, renal artery, renal vein, kidney, dorsal aorta, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

37
Q

What are the parts of the nephron?

A

Proximal tubule, Bowman’s capsule, glomerulus, distal tubule, collecting duct, ascending limb, descending limb, loop of Henle

38
Q

What is the circulatory pathway of blood in the heart?

A

Oxygenated blood goes through the aorta to the body. The blood is dropped off at the tissues and returns as deoxygenated blood from the body going into the heart. The blood enters the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava and continues into the right atrium. Then the blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The blood goes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery, which takes the blood to the lungs to get more oxygen. Oxygenated blood comes back to the heat through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. Then it goes through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle. From there, it goes through the aortic valve into the aorta. From the aorta, the cycle starts again.

39
Q

How do endotherms control their inside temperature?

A

lnsulation(feathers, blubber), circulatory adaptations(vasodilation and vasoconstriction/countercurrents heat exchanger), evaporative heat loss, behavioral responses(migration and hibernation), adjusting metabolic heat production by increasing muscle activity as moving or shivering.

40
Q

How do endotherms regulate temperature?

A

Behavioral responses(moving back and forth from sunny areas to shady areas)

41
Q

What is the pathway involved with the nephron?

A

Bowman’s capsule -> proximal tubule -> loop of Henle -> a hairpin turn with a descending limb and an ascending limb -> distal tubule -> collecting duct -> renal pelvis

42
Q

What does the oral cavity do fo digestion?

A

Breaks up the food with the teeth and saliva.

43
Q

What does the esophagus do for digestion?

A

It doesn’t actually digest, but rather, transports the bolus down to the stomach.

44
Q

What does the stomach do for digestion?

A

The stomach adds acids that help break down the food further. The stomach has a really acidic pH sometimes down to 2, and has to have a mucus lining to prevent the stomach acid from dissolving the organ itself.

45
Q

What does the small intestine do for digestion?

A

In the small intestine, digestive juices from the liver, pancreas and gallbladder are added(more specifically in the deodenum). In the jejunem and Ileum, nutrients and some water are absorbed.

46
Q

What is the role of the large intestine in digestion?

A

The large intestine transports the food through the ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colon, where the rest of the water from the material is absorbed, and the material is compacted into feces. The material moves by peristalsis.

47
Q

In what places is blood deoxygenated in the heart?

A

The superior and inferior vena cava, the pulmonary arteries, the right atrium, the right ventricle, and the tricuspid valve.

48
Q

In what places is blood oxygenated in the heart?

A

The aorta, the pulmonary veins, the left atrium, the bicuspid valve, the left ventricle, and the aortic valve

49
Q

What are the three lines of defense in the immune system?

A

1st: Innate- outside barriers(skin, sweat, tears, hair, mucus, saliva, stomach acid, earwax, and oils)
2nd: Innate- inside white blood cells(Neutrophils, macrophages, eosinophils, and dendritic cells)
3rd: Acquired- inside lymphocytes(B cells, T cells, and helper T cells)

50
Q

What are B cells? What are the functions of B cells?

A

B cells are a type of lymphocyte that bind to specific epitopes on an invader(antigen) and are part of the humoral response. B cells mature in the bone marow, and B cells produce antibodies and memory B cells.

51
Q

What are T cells? What are the functions of T cells?

A

T cells are a type of lymphocyte that bind to specific epitopes of invaders in host cells and are part of the cell-mediated response. T cells mature in the thymus and produce cytotoxic T cells and memory T cells.

52
Q

What are helper T cells? What are the functions of helper T cells?

A

Helper T cells are lymphocytes that activate either B or T cells and promote both humoral and cell-mediated responses. They are activated by dendritic cells.

53
Q

What is an antibody, and what cells produce them?

A

An antibody is a protein secreted by differentiated B cells that binds to a particular antigen and marks it for elimination; also called immunoglobulin. All antibody molecules have the same Y-shaped structure and in their monomer form consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains joined by di-sulfide bridges.

54
Q

How are ABO blood types affected by the immune system?

A

O blood types have antibodies that are anti-A and Anti-B, and are universal donors. AB blood types don’t have any antibodies, and as such, can receive all blood types. Blood types A, have only antibodies that are anti-B. Blood types B only have antibodies that are anti-A.

55
Q

Study the endocrine glands and hormones.

A

[look at other flashcards]

56
Q

List the parts of the neuron.

A

Axon, myelin sheath, Schwann cell, Nodes of ranvier, nucleus of Schwann cell[look at pg 1015 in book for the figure]

57
Q

List the endocrine glands.

A

Hypothalamus, pituitary gland(anterior and posterior), thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads(testes, ovaries), pineal gland

58
Q

What is the pathway of the filtrate in the nephron?

A

Filtration occurs as blood pressure forces fluid from the blood in the glomerullus into the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. From Bowman’s capsule, the filtrate passes through three regions of the nephron: the proximal tubule, the loop of Henle(a hairpin turn with a descending and asceding limb), and the distal tubule. The distal tubule empties into the collecting duct, which recieves processed filtrate from many nephrons. This filtrate flows from the many collecting ducts of the kidney into the renal pelvis, which is drained by the ureter.

59
Q

How does negative feedback work with the endocrine system?

A

In negative feedback, the effector response reduces the initial stimulus, and eventually the resposne ceases. This feedback mechanism prevents overreaction by the system and wild fluctuations in the variable being regulated. Negative feedback operates in many endocrine and nervous pathways involved in maintaining homeostasis.

60
Q

How does positive feedback work with the endocrine system?

A

Positive feedback reinforces the stimulus and leads to an even greater response. The neurohormone pathway that regulates the release of milk by a nursing mother is an example of positive feedback. Suckling stimulates sensory nervous cells in the nipples, which send nervous signals that reach the hypothalamus and triggers the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland. Oxytocon then causes the mammary glands to secrete milk. The release of milk in turn leads to more suckling and stimulation of the pathway, until the baby is satisfied.

61
Q

How does negative feedback work with the endocrine system?

A

pg. 944

62
Q

What is the difference between afferent and efferent arterioles?

A

The afferent arteriole is a branch of the renal artery that subdivides into the capillaries of the glomerulus. The capillaries converge as they leave the glomerulus, forming the efferent arteriole.

63
Q

What is the voltage of resting potential? What is the threshold? What is the typical membrane potential?

A

In neurons, the membrane potential is typically between -60 and -80 mV when the cell is not transmitting signals. When the neuron is not transmitting signals, that is called the resting potential. In most neurons, depolarizations are graded up to a certain membrane voltage- the threshold. A stimulus strong enough to produce a depolarization that reaches the threshold triggers an action potential.

64
Q

What is the importance of acetylcholine?

A

Acetylcholine can be either inhibitory or excitatory(excitatory to vertebrate skeletal muscles), depending on the type of receptor. [add more from pg. 1024]

65
Q

What is the importance of acetylcholine?

A

Acetylcholine can be either inhibitory or excitatory()

66
Q

How does positive feedback work with the endocrine system?

A

pg. 944

67
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?

A

Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia outside the CNS

68
Q

What is the difference between afferent and efferent arterioles?

A

pg. 933

69
Q

What is the voltage of resting potential? What is the threshold? What is the typical membrane potential?

A

pg. 1015-1017

70
Q

What is the importance of acetylcholine?

A

pg 1024

71
Q

What is a nephron?

A

The tubular excretory unit of the vertebrate kidney.

AP Biology (20 decks)

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