Chapters 4-6 The Vine & Growing Environment & Vineyard Management Flashcards
What are the 2 vine species important in modern viticulture?
Vitis vinifera
American vines
What is vitis vinifera?
Vitus vinifera is the main Eurasian vine species.
It produces nearly all the grapes used in winemeking.
It has been used to make wine for several thousand years
What is important about American vines?
American vines are resistant to phylloxera and so are widely used to produce rootstocks that Vitis vinifera can be grafted onto
How many grape varieties belong to the vitis vinifera species?
Thousands
What are the 2 techniques in which a grape variety is propagated?
Cutting
Layering
With regards to grape variety propagation, what is a cutting?
A cutting is a section of a vine shoot that is planted and then grows as a new plant
With regards to grape variety propagation, what is layering?
Layering takes place in the vineyard.
Layering occurs when a cane is bent down and a section of it is buried with the tip pointing upwards out of the ground.
When the buried section takes root, the cane linking the new growth to the original plant is cut.
What is a clone?
A clone is an individual vine or group of vines that show a particular set of unique characteristics
Clones occur as a result of mutations that can sometimes be positive and result in plants with better quality fruit or disease resistance
What is cross fertilisation?
Pollen from the male part of the flower from one vine is transferred to the female part of the flower on another vine and fertilisation occurs.
The pollinated flower develops into a grape with seeds
If a seed is planted and grows the resulting vine will be a new variety as its genetic material is different from that of its parents
Why are researchers interested in cross fertilisation?
To develop new vine varieties that may thrive in certain conditions, be resistant to disease or produce higher quality or quantity of grapes
Why are there so few new grape varieties being made with cross fertilisation?
Impos to know the qualities of a new variety
Hundreds of seeds are required
Many seedlings fail in the first year
2-3 years before those that do survive flower and produce grapes
Years to determine long term value of new variety
Process is costly and time consuming
What are the 4 sections of a grape vine?
- the green parts of the vine
- one-year-old wood
- permanent wood
- roots
What is the principal structure of the green part of the vine?
A shoot
What 4 components can be found along the length of each shoot of a grape vine
- Leaves
- Buds
- Tendrils
- Flowers or berries
What is the function of leaves on a grape vine?
Photosynthesis - water and CO2 is converted into glucose and O2
Glucose is required to support vine growth and make ripe grapes sweet
What is the function of buds on a grape vine?
Buds are little embryonic shoots that develop between the leaves and the shoot.
Buds mature inside their casing during the growing season so that by the end of the year, each bud will contain all the structures that will become the shoot, leaves, flowers and tendrils the following year
What is the function of tendrils on a grape vine?
Support
Vines are not able to support themselves so they use tendrils to grip a supporting structure
What is the purpose of flowers on a grape vine?
Reproduction
A vines flowers have both male and female parts (grouped in bunches called inflorescences)
Each flower that is successfully pollinated will become a berry and so the inflorescence will become a harvestable bunch of grapes
What is one-year-old wood?
A shoot that has turned woody the winter after it has grown
Why is one-year-old wood important?
Shoots turn woody during the winter.
The following spring the buds on the woody shoot (now called one-year-old wood) burst and grow into shoots.
Vines will only produce fruit from shoots that grew from buds the previous year.
What is the difference between a cane and a spur?
Both are one-year old wood.
A cane is long with 8 - 20 buds.
A spur is short with 2 - 3 buds.
What is permanent wood?
Permanent wood is wood that is more than one-year-old; trunk and arms of the vine
What is the function of the roots?
Absorb water and nutrients from the soil
Anchor the vine
Store carbohydrates to survive the winter
Most Vitis vinifera vines grafted onto root systems from other species
What is a crossing?
Name 1 example
A new variety of grape vine produced from 2 parents of the same species (eg. Vitis vinifera) although different varieties of that species.
Can occur naturally in nature or due to human intervention
eg Pinotage = Pinot Noir x Cinsault
What is a hybrid?
A new variety of garpe vine produced by 2 parents of different species (eg. American vine x Vitis vinifera)
What is phylloxera?
An insect native to North America that Vitis vinifera is unable to defend itself against
How does phylloxera destroy Vitis vinifera vines?
Phylloxera takes different forms throughout the year
During one phase it lives as underground louse and feeds on the roots of the vine
Infection enters through these feeding wounds and over a few years the vine dies
How do American vines withstand phylloxera?
American vines inhibit the underground louse by clogging its mouth with a sticky sap
They also form protective layers behind the feeding wound preventing secondary infections
What 3 areas in the world do not have a phylloxera problem?
Chile
South Australia
some parts of Argentina
What are 3 advantages of grafting American vine rootstock onto vitis vinifera vines?
Resistance to phylloxera
Protection against nematodes
Resistance to drought conditions
What is grafting?
Grafting is a technique to join a rootstock to a Vitis vinifera variety
What are 2 grafting techniques?
Bench grafting
Head grafting
What is bench grafting?
Short sections of cane from the Vitis vinifera and rootstock varieties are joined together by machine and stored in a warm environment
Once to 2 parts fuse together the vine can be planted
What is head grafting?
The existing established vine is cut back to its trunk and a bud or cutting of the new variety is grafted onto that trunk.
What are 3 advantages of head grafting?
The newly grafted vine will produce the fruit of the new variety at the next vintage
Cheaper than replanting with the new variety
The new variety starts with an established root system
What 5 elements are necessary for vine survival?
Heat Sunlight Carbon dioxide Water Nutrients
Below what temperature is it too cold for vines to grow?
Below 10°C
What 8 factors affect heat in a vineyard?
Latitude Altitude Ocean Currents Fog Soil Aspect Continentality Diurnal Range
What is continentality?
The temperature difference between the coldest and hottest months
How do large bodies of water affect continentality?
Large bodies of water heat up and cool down more slowly then landmasses
Areas near large bodies of water therefore have low continentality
How does continentality effect vineyards?
It will determine the length of the growing season
It will therefore influence what grape varieties can successfully be grown
How does latitude effect vineyards?
Heat & Sunlight
Most vineyards lie between 30° and 50° N and S of the equator, closer is too hot and further away is too cold
Day length during summer is longer the further the vineyard is from the equator. Extra sunlight helps grapes to ripen
How does altitude effect vineyards?
The higher the altitude the lower the temperature. It is possible to grow vines in regions of high altitude and close to the equator. eg Cafayate
How does ocean currents effect vineyards?
Major currents transport large volumes of warm or cold water, leading to localised warming or cooling in certain areas.
Warming Gulf stream
Cooling Humboldt & Benguela currents
How does fog effect vineyards?
Fog cools vineyards allowing grapes to grow in hotter regions
California
Casablanca Valley
How does soil effect vineyards?
Soils that are dark in colour, high stone and rock content can absorb and reradiate heat.
Soils with a high water content can conduct heat away from the vine more quickly
How does aspect effect vineyards?
The vineyards with an aspect facing the equator receive the most heat and sunlight
Steeper slopes benefit even more from this effect.
Mosel, Germany
What is diurnal range?
The difference in daytime and nightime temperatures
What 2 components impact diurnal range?
The proximity to bodies of water.
The level of cloud cover
How do warm and cool nights effect vineyards?
Cool nights help slow the loss of aromas and acidity
Warm nights accelerate ripening
In what 2 ways can a mild winter effect vineyards?
If the winter is mild, the vine will not have a dormant period (may produce more than 1 crop/year) which will result in a shorter life and poor quality grapes
Mild winters also mean more insects survive to attack the vines the following summer
What temperature hazard occurs during Spring?
What are the ramifications?
Spring frost
Cold air below 0°C collects at ground level and freezes any water vapour on the ground or vine. It kills newly burst buds or young shoots
What are the 4 main forms of protection from Spring frost?
Heaters
Wind machines
Sprinklers
Thoughtful vineyard design
How do heaters protect from Spring frosts?
Heaters placed throughout the vineyard are lit if frost is forecast
The heat creates movement in the air preventing the cold air from settling
How do wind machines prevent Spring frost?
Like large fans, they draw warm air from above to keep the ground temperature above freezing
How do sprinklers prevent Spring frost?
Water is sprayed onto the vines
As water freezes, heat energy is released protecting the buds and shoots
What are 2 way in which thoughtful vineyard design can help protect vines from Spring frost?
Planting of vineyards higher on slopes and avoiding depressions in which cold air can collect can minimise Spring frosts.
Training vines high to avoid cold air can also minimise effects of frost
What 2 processes within the vineyard are impacted on by cold temperatures in Spring?
Cold temperatures delay budburst resulting in a shortened growing season and not enough time for the grapes to ripen
Flowering and fruitset can be disrupted by cold temperatures resulting in lower yields of grapes
In what 3 ways can hot summers impact the vineyard?
In extreme heat, all vine activity will slow and then stop, even with sufficient water
The grapes will not ripen properly
The vines may die
Why is sunlight necessary for vine survival?
Vines need sunlight to photosynthesise and convert water and CO2 into glucose and O2.
Flowering and fruitset benefit from sunlight
What are the 3 factors affecting sunlight in the vineyard?
Latitude
Seas and lakes
Aspect
How do seas and lakes affect sunlight in vineyards?
Vineyards near seas and lakes experience more cloud cover than those at the centre of large land masses.
However vineyards located above lakes or rivers can benefit from reflected sunlight
What are 2 potential consequences of not enough sunlight in the vineyard?
Cloudy conditions during flowering and fruitset can result in a smaller crop of grapes
Heavy cloud can slow photosynthesis which can stop grapes ripening fully
What are 2 ways in which a vine receives water?
Rainfall
Irrigation
What are 3 main ways of irrigation?
Drip irrigation
Sprinklers
Flood irrigation
What are 3 potential water hazards in the vineyard?
Drought
Too much water
Hail
How does drought affect a vineyard?
Transpiration is temporarily stopped
In severe cases vine suffers water stress where photosynthesis stops, leaves wilt and grapes fail to ripen
What is transpiration?
A process whereby water is drawn up through the roots to the leaves
How does too much water affect a vineyard during the ripening period?
Vines will continue to grow shoots and leaves during the ripening period leaving less sugar for grapes.
Excess leaves and shoot shade grapes so they may not ripen
Waterlogged soil can cause roots to become saturated and die
Damp increases the spread of fungal disease
How does too much water affect a vineyard during the flowering period?
Heavy rainfall can disrupt flowering and fruitset and reduce the number of grapes
How does too much water affect a vineyard during the harvest period?
Heavy rain just before harvest can cause grapes to swell, diluted flavour and possibly splitting
Split grapes attract fungal disease
How does hail affect a vineyard?
Hail can damage the grapes and the vine. Whole harvests can be lost
What is the definition of a regions climate?
The annual pattern of temperature, sunlight and rainfall, averaged over several years
What is the definition of a regions weather?
The annual variation that happens relative to the climatic average
What are the features of a Continental Climate?
High continentality
Low rainfall
Usually sunny
Can be cool, moderate, warm or hot
What grape varieties suit a Continental Climate?
Grape varieties that bud late and ripen early
Due to risk of Spring frost and low temperatures during the growing season
What are the features of a Maritime climate?
Cool to moderate temperatures
Low continentality
Rainfall spread evenly throughout the year
What grape varieties suit a Maritime climate?
Grape varieties that require a long ripening time, that continue ripening into Autumn
eg: Cab Sav in Bordeaux
What are the conditions of a Mediterranean climate?
Low continentality
Warm and dry summers
What grape varieties suit a Mediterranean climate?
Grape varieties that result in wine which is fuller bodied with higher tannins, lower acidity and higher alcohol
Found in soil, what is humus?
Decomposing plant and animal materials that are rich in plant nutrients and have excellent water retaining properties.
What nutrients found in soil are necessary fro vine health?
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Potassium
What is a common symptom, in a vine, linked to a lack of nutrients?
Chlorosis
Leaves turn yellow and the vines ability to photosynthesis is restricted
What are 3 considerations when choosing a site for a new vineyard?
Environmental conditions
Business considerations
Grape variety
What are the 2 categories of vine training?
Head training
Cordon training
What is head training?
Little permanent wood
Spur or replacement cane pruned
What is cordon training?
Vines have a trunk with 1 or more horizontal arms or ‘cordons’
Spur pruned
What is spur pruning?
Spurs are short sections of one-year-old wood containing 2-3 buds, distributed along a cordon (cordon training) or around the top of the trunk (head training)
What is replacement cane pruning?
Canes are longer sections of one-year-old wood containing 8-20buds. 1 or 2 canes are tied horizontally to the trellis. Most often head trained. Also called Guyot training
How are bush vines normally pruned and trellissed?
Bush vines are untrellissed vines
Shoots can hang down as far as the ground
Head trained and spur pruned
What is the vine training system “gobelet’?
A vine training system in which the shoots are tied together at the tips.
Used on head trained, spur pruned, untrellissed vines, in cool or wet regions, to expose bunches to air and sunlight.
What is 1 advantage of untrellissed vines in hot regions?
In hot, sunny regions, the extra shade helps protect the grapes
What are 3 disadvantages of untrellissed vines?
In cool regions, the shade can impede grape ripening
In wet regions, the lack of airflow can promote disease
Not suitable for mechanical harvesting
What is another expression for the process of trellissing vineyards?
Canopy management
What are 3 reasons for canopy management?
The amount of sunlight that gets into the canopy can be controlled
An open canopy can improve air circulation
Mechanical harvesting is simplified
What is vertical shoot positioning?
VSP is used with replacement cane or spur vines. Shoots are trained vertically and tied in place onto the trellis using a single narrow canopy
Tops of shoots may be not tied and left to flop over and provide shade to the canopy in hot climates
In a vineyard with limited water availability, how densely should vines be planted
Low density planting will allow each vines roots to take up water from a large volume of soil without competition from neighbouring vines
In a vineyard with sufficient water but low levels of nutrients, how densely should vines be planted?
Vines thrive in barely fertile soil
With sufficient water, vines will produce lots of green vegetative growth in preference to fruit
High density planting will provide competition for resources
Why is it important to have the correct number of buds after pruning?
Too few buds = each bud has access to too much energy and will grow vigorously
Too many buds = each bud will not have enough energy and struggle to ripen
In vineyards with sufficient water and high levels of nutrients, what should be considered when planting vines?
High density planting to promote competition for resources
OR
Low density planting using vines with multiple cordons
What are the 6 stages of the vineyard cycle
Budburst Early shoot and leaf growth Flowering and fruit Set Véraison and Berry ripening harvest Winter Dormancy
Name 4 pests which impact the vineyard.
Phylloxera
Nematodes
Birds and mammals
Insects
What are nematodes?
How do you minimise the impact of nematodes?
Microscopic worms that attack the roots of vines and may transmit viruses
Sanitising the soil and using resistant root stocks have been successful
How do birds and mammals impact the vineyard?
How do you minimise that impact?
Both eat large volumes of grapes
Half eaten grapes = increased risk of fungal disease
Netting keeps out birds
Fencing deters rabbits, deer or wild boar
How do insects impact the vineyard?
How do you minimise that impact?
Insects feed on grapes and leaves.
Insecticides
Integrated pest management
When does budburst occur?
What is necessary for budburst?
What risks?
March-April
When temp exceeds 10°C
Danger of new shoots being killed by Spring frosts
When does early shoot and leaf growth occur?
What is necessary?
March-May
Initially fuelled by carbohydrate reserves but then by leaves via photosynthesis
Good supply of water & nutrients needed
Shoots tied to trellis (if trellissing)
When does Flowering and fruit set occur?
What is necessary?
What risks?
May-June
Warm temperatures, sunshine
Rain can disrupt pollination reducing fruit set
When does Véraison and Berry Ripening occur?
What is necessary?
What risks?
July-September
Warm, sunny conditions are ideal, mild water stress inhibits shoot growth, encourages grape ripening
Pests
What is véraison?
The point at which the grapes begin to ripen
When does Harvest occur?
What is necessary?
What risks?
September-October
Dry harvest period is ideal
Rainfall before harvest can cause grapes to swell, diluting juice
Damp conditions can increase the risk of rot
When does Winter dormancy occur?
What vineyard activity occurs during Winter?
What risks?
December-March
Winter pruning
In feezing climates, earth may be piled up around the vine to offer some protection
What diseases can impact the vineyard?
Fungal diseases (Downy & powdery mildew, Grey Rot)
Viruses
Bacterial diseases
How does Downy and Powdery mildew affect the vine?
Affects all green parts of the vine, leaves and grapes
Grapes lose fruity flavours and can give wine a mouldy, bitter taste
How does Grey Rot affect the vine?
Botrytis cinerea attacks grapes.
It can taint grape flavours and lead to colour loss
OR
can be beneficial and help produce Noble Rot sweet wine
How are fungal diseases controlled in the vineyard?
Chemical sprays (fungicides) Canopy management
How do viruses affect the vine?
Reduce grape quality and quantity
Contagious and persistent, spread by nematodes or cuttings
No treatment- vines must be dug up and land sanitised
How do bacterial diseases affect the vine?
Reduce grape quality and quantity but can kill vine
Spread by insects called sharpshooters
No treatment - vines must be dug up and land sanitised
What are 3 options to reduce the quantity of chemicals used in the vineyard?
Sustainable Agriculture
Organic Agriculture
Biodynamic Agriculture
What are the advantages of machine harvesting?
Speed
Machines work throughout the night delivering cool grapes to the winery - saves money and energy on cooling down the grapes before fermentation and slows down the process of oxidation which could lead to off flavours
May be less expensive
What are the advantages of hand harvesting?
Allows grape selection - unripe or rotten grapes left on the vine
Grapes are less damaged
Stems are retained - potential for whole bunch fermentaion
Any vineyard regardless of slope, access can be hand harvested
Essential for grapes affected by noble rot
How does a harsh winter effect vineyards?
If the temperature drops below -20°C the vine can be damaged or killed
What is the impact of too much sun in the vineyard?
Intense sun can cause sunburning leading to bitter flavours developing in the grape skin
Name a region with a continental climate.
Chablis
Name a region with a mediterranean climate.
the Mediterranean, coastal California, Chile, South Africa, South eastern Australia
Name a region with a maritime climate.
Bordeaux
What is ‘Guyot’ training?
Replacement cane pruning in which 1 or 2 canes are retained and each tied horizontally to the trellis for support
What is the point at which the grapes begin to ripen called?
Véraison
What is the average temperature range for an ideal growing season?
Between 16°-21°C
In cooler regions, does budburst occur earlier or later?
Later
This can lead to a shorter growing season and failure to ripen properly
What is the crossing of Riesling and Madeline Royale called?
Müller Thurgau
What is the crossing of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc called?
Cabernet Sauvignon
Compare the styles of Pinot Gris vs Pinot Grigio.
Pinot Gris tend to be rich, oily textured, high in alcohol and moderate to low acidity with ripe & exotic fruit.
Pinot Grigio tends to be harvested early to retain acidity & avoid development of too much fruit. Wines are light bodied and crisp.
