Chapters 26-29, 31 Flashcards
0
Q
what is taxonomy
A
the process of grouping organisms together based on shared similarities that suggest they are related evolutionarily
1
Q
who is the father of Taxonomy
A
Carolus Linnaeus
2
Q
what is a taxon (plural taxa)
A
a group of shared similarities used in taxonomy
3
Q
what does a prokarya have instead of a true nucleus
A
a nucleoid region
4
Q
what is binomial nomenclature
A
the process of giving every organism a unique 2-part scientific name
5
Q
what is the plural of genus and how is it pronounced
A
genera, pronounced similar to general
6
Q
what is a specific epithet
A
a unique name following the genus identifying the species of an organism
7
Q
what is a binomial (naming)
A
the 2-part scientific name of an organism
8
Q
why is the binomial always capitalized or underlined
A
to indicate that it is Latin
9
Q
who published Systema Naturae and in what year
A
Carolus Linnaeus 1735
10
Q
how many pages was the first edition of Systema Naturae
A
11 pages
11
Q
How many plants and animals were named and classified in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758)
A
over 12,000
12
Q
In scholarly texts how is the scientist that first described an organism in (Botany) indicated
A
Abbreviated surname
13
Q
In scholarly texts how is the scientist that first described an organism in (Zoology) indicated
A
full surname
14
Q
How is it indicated if the genus of a species has been changed since the organism’s original description
A
Abbreviated (botany) or full (zoology) surname of describer and description date placed in parentheses
15
Q
What is the Domain of Humans
A
Eukarya
16
Q
What is the Kingdom of Humans
A
Animalia
17
Q
What is the Phylum of Humans
A
Chordata
18
Q
What is the Subphylum of Humans
A
Vertebrata
19
Q
What is the Class of Humans
A
Mammalia
20
Q
What is the Order of Humans
A
Primate
21
Q
What is the Family of Humans
A
Hominidae
22
Q
What is the Genus of Humans
A
Homo
23
Q
What is the species of Humans
A
Homo (sapiens)
24
what organisms are considered eukarya
organisms made of eukaryotic cells
25
what organisms are considered animalia
multicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes (sponges to humans)
26
what organisms are considered Chordata
animals with a nerve chord (tunicates to humans)
27
what organisms are considered Mammalia
vertebrates with hair and mammary glands (mice to humans)
28
what organisms are considered Primate
mammals with short snouts, eyes forward, opposable thumbs (lemurs to humans)
29
what organisms are considered Hominidae
primates with prominent face, flattened nails, no tail (Humans, chimps, bonobos, gorillas, orangutans)
30
What organisms are considered Homo
Human
31
What does Homo sapiens mean?
wise human
32
what is phylogeny?
the evolutionary history of an organism
33
what are (5) ways we compare the evolutionary relatedness of organisms?
1. comparative anatomy
2. embryology
3. physiology
4. biochemistry
5. genetics
34
what are homologous structures?
structures that are similar because they arose from a common ancestor
35
what are analogous structures?
structures that arose independently but appear similar because of convergent evolution
36
what is convergent evolution?
evolving from separate ancestors that required similar functions
37
what is a phylogenetic tree?
a "best guess" at the evolutionary history of a group of organisms
38
in a phylogenetic tree, what is an outgroup?
the organism that diverged from the common ancestor first and is thus least similar to the other organisms
39
what was the original two kingdom system?
animalia and plantae (photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria and sedentary organisms like fungi were sorted into plantae)
40
what years was the five-kingdom system considered the most accurate?
1969-1990
41
what are the five kingdoms of the five kingdom system?
monera (prokaryotes), protista (unicellular eukaryotes), fungi (multicellular saprotrophs), plantae and animalia
42
what causes the three domain system to be added to the tree of life?
Carol Woese provided molecular evidence that the prokaryotes are extremely diverse
43
what are the three domains?
1. bacteria
2. archaea
3. eukarya
44
what two principles allow us to create the best guess for a phylogenetic true?
1. principle of maximum parsimony - fewest evolutionary events
2. principle of maximum likelihood - most likely explanation
45
how long have prokaryotes been on Earth? and how long were they alone?
3.5 billion years; 1.5 billion years
46
how much bigger are eukaryotes than prokaryotes?
about ten times bigger
47
what are two characteristics that eukarya and archaea have in common?
1. no peptidoglycan in cell wall
| 2. histones in DNA
48
what is similar about the DNA of bacteria and archaea?
circular chromosomes
49
what are methanogens?
obligate anaerobes (archaea) that produce methane
50
what are extreme halophiles?
archaea that live in very salty (20%+) environments
51
what are extreme thermophiles?
archaea that live in hot springs and thermal vents in the ocean
52
what were likely the earliest prokaryotes?
extreme thermophiles
53
what are three common categories of prokaryotes based on cell shape?
1. cocci (spheres): chains clusters and pairs
2. bacilli (rods): may form chains, pairs
3. spirilla/spirochetes (helices): single
54
what does the prefix diplo- indicate in prokaryotes
paired
55
what does staphylo- indicate in prokaryotes
clustered
56
what does strepto- indicate in prokaryotes?
chains
57
what is plasma membrane and cell wall of prokaryotes made out of?
peptidoglycan (sugar and polypeptides)
58
what compound absorbs the violet color in a gram stain?
peptidoglycan
59
which prokaryotes have simpler walls, gram positive or gram negative?
positive
60
what is different about gram negative prokaryotes?
less peptidoglycan and a second lipopolysaccharide membrane
61
what color are gram negative prokaryotes
pink
62
why do some prokaryotes stick to the host with a sticky capsule?
to reduce surface area and make it harder to kill the cell
63
what is a pili?
a long hairlike structure that adheres bacterium to host
64
what is a fimbriae?
short hairlike structures that adheres bacterium to host
65
what is a sex pilus?
a hair like protrusion used to exchange DNA between bacteria during conjugation
66
what is a bacterial chromosome?
a single large double-stranded DNA circle
67
where is the bacterial chromosome located?
in the nucleoid region where cytoplasm is less dense
68
what are plasmids
additional tiny pieces of circular DNA in bacteria
69
which replicates faster, plasmids or bacterial chromosome?
plasmids
70
what is the name of the prokaryotic process of asexual reproduction?
binary fission
71
what are three ways a bacterium can vary its DNA?
1. transformation
2. conjugation
3. transduction
72
what is bacterial transformation?
when a bacteria takes in naked DNA from environment (can cross species)
73
what is bacterial conjugation?
transfer of DNA between two bacteria joined by a sex pillus. one way transfer, "male" to "female"
74
what is bacterial transduction
bacteriophages (viruses) carry bacterial DNA from host to host
75
what is a bacterial endospore
the bacteria replicates and encases it in a tough wall. can survive environmental extremes
76
what are photoautotrophs
use light energy to make organic molecules from CO2
77
what organism plays a major role in nitrogen fixation
cyanobacteria
78
what is nitrogen fixation
conversion from atmospheric N2 to ammonium (NH4+)
79
what are chemoautotrophs
energy from inorganic substances to make organic molecules from CO2
80
what are photoheterotrophs
use light energy and organic "food" to make ATP
81
what are chemoheterotrophs
consume food as the source for both energy and carbon
82
what are saprobes
chemotrophs that decompose dead material
83
what are parasites
chemoheterotrophs that absorb energy (carbon) from a host
84
what are obligate aerobes
need oxygen to grow
85
what are obligate anaerobes
poisoned by oxygen
86
what are facultative anaerobes
use oxygen if available, ferment if oxygen is unavailable
87
what was the food source for the earlier prokaryotes
organic molecules; photosynthesis evolved early in response to food shortage
88
what are opportunistic pathogens
normally found in body in low numbers, if immune system is weakened they multiply
89
what are exotoxins
poisonous proteins secreted by prokaryotes
90
what are endotoxins
poisonous proteins associated with outer membrane of some gram-negative bacteria
91
what are the purpose of exotoxins in a gram-positive bacteria
growth and metabolism
92
what are four types of cellular organization for protists
1. unicellular
2. filamentous
3. colonial
4. multicellular
93
what protists are photoautotrophs?
algae
94
what protists are heterotrophs?
protozoa
95
what are mixotrophs?
protists that can get nutrition from both food and photosynthesis
96
what is the endomembrane hypothesis
internal membranes surrounding certain organelles (nuclear envelope, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum) resulted from infolding of the plasma membrane
97
what is a plastic
sac that contains pigment or stores food
98
what is the endosymbiotic hypothesis
mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts) were prokaryotes that entered cells as undigested prey
99
what are endosymbionts
relationship where host and internal prokaryote benefit
100
what is the timeline of organism nutrition sources? (chloroplastid, mitochondria, heterotrophs and autotrophs)
1. heterotrophs, food shortage
2. autotrophs, oxygen build up
3. mitochondria (protect from oxygen)
4. chloroplast
101
what is primary endosymbiosis
cyanobacterium is engulfed by eukaryotic cell; 2 membranes
102
what is secondary endosymbiosis
primary endosymbionts are engulfed by eukaryotic cell; 3-4 membranes
103
phylum name of green algae?
chlorophyta
104
what phylum is ancestor to land plants
chlorophyta
105
what are the three similarities between chlorophyta and land plants
1. chlorophylls a and b
2. store food as starch
3. cellulose in cell walls
106
how many cells are in chlamydomonas
one
107
how many chloroplast are in chlamydomonas
one large chloroplast
108
what is a pyrenoid
within chloroplast, for starch production and storage
109
what is a stigma
"eye spot" used to sense light
110
are chlamydomonas diploid or haploid
haploid
111
how do chlamydomonas asexually reproduce?
mitosis
112
how do chlamydomonas sexually reproduce?
syngamy triggered by stress
113
what are isogametes
gametes that look the same but have different mating types
114
what happens when chlamydomonas reproduce sexually?
isogametes go through syngamy (fusion) producing diploid zygote within a zygospore. when conditions improve zygote goes through meiosis and produces haploids
115
what is characteristic of spirogyra chloroplasts?
ribbon-like and arranged in spirals
116
what is the shape of spirogyra
unbranched filament
117
how do spirogyra reproduce sexually?
conjugation tubes
118
what happens when a spirogyra produces sexually?
conjugation tube forms, contents are dumped from one cell to opposite mating type, nuclei fuse and meiosis occurs.
119
what is the shape of cladophora
branched filaments
120
what is alternation of generations in cladophora?
haploid gametophytes produce gametes that fuse and form diploid sporophytes; sporophytes make haploid cells through meiosis
121
how many flagella do chlamydomonas have
two
122
what is the structure of volvox
colony of chlamydomonas like cells embedded in spherical matrix
123
are volvox cells haploid or diploid
haploid
124
what are daughter colonies
bulges inside matrix of volvox from binary fission
125
what is oogamy
when one gamete looks like an egg and other looks like sperm
126
how does volvox produce sexually?
oogamy
127
what happens when a volvox reproduces sexually
motile sperm fertilizes non-motile egg; diploid zygote forms zygospore; parent colony disintegrates and zygospore goes through meiosis and forms new colony through mitosis
128
what is phylum name of brown algae
phaeophyta
129
where are brown algae located
principle seaweed of temperate and polar regions (not tropical)
130
what is an ecological importance of brown algae
food sources for humans and livestock
131
what pigments are in brown algae
chlorophylls a and c and fucoxanthin
132
how do brown algae store food?
laminarin or as oil
133
what are brown algae walls made out of
cellulose
134
are there any unicellular brown algae?
no, all are multicellular and usually very large
135
what is the thallus of brown algae
multicellular but relatively unspecialized body
136
what is the holdfast of brown algae
differentiation of thallus that anchors algae
137
what are three differentiations of thallus in brown algae
1. stipe ("stalk")
2. blade ("leaf")
3. holdfast ("root")
138
what are gas bladders
cells filled with oxygen that support brown algae in water
139
what is phylum name of red algae
rhodophyta
140
what pigments do rhodophyta contain
chlorophylls a and d and phycobilins
141
what is significant about red algae having red pigments
they can absorb wavelengths of light at greater depths of water than other algae
142
what is the relationship between cyanobacteria and rhodophyta?
its believed that the chloroplasts of red algae evolved from ancestors of modern cyanobacteria by primary endosymbiosis
143
what pigments do diatoms have
chlorophylls a and c and xanthophylls
144
how do diagoms store food
oils
145
what is the ploidy of diatoms
unicellular diploids
146
what is the phylum name of dinoflagellates
dinoflagellata
147
what is the structure of dinoflagellates
Armor-like cellulose walls with grooves housing two flagella
148
describe the structure of diatoms
silicon-containing glass-like wall that forms a double shell
149
what are "red tides"
outbreaks of dinoflagellates that can kill fish with their toxins
150
what prokaryote is unfortunately called an algae?
cyanobacteria is called blue-green algae as a misnomer
151
what algae can be bioluminescent?
dinoflagellates
152
what are euglenoids?
unicellular fresh water algae that have a pellicle instead of a cell wall
153
what pigments do Euglenoids have
chlorophylls a and b
154
what is special about euglenoids chloroplasts?
enclosed by a triple membrane suggesting secondary endosymbiosis
155
how many flagella do euglenoids have?
two flagella
156
what are protozoans
heterotrophic protists
157
how do protozoas store food?
food vacuoles containing digestive enzymes
158
what is the purpose of contractile vacuoles
expel excess water from osmosis to prevent rupture
159
what are the three divisions of protozoans
divided by locomation
1. pseudopodia
2. flagella
3. cilia
160
what is a stigma on a euglena?
red pigmented eyespot that allows them to position themselves for maximum photosynthesis
161
what are amoebas
unicellular protozoans that move and feed by blunt cellular extensions called pseudopodia
162
where are amoeba found
terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems
163
what is a test
a shell-like coating formed by a secreted protein
164
what parasitic amoeba causes amoebic dysentery in humans
entamoeba histolytica
165
what are two types of shelled amoebas
actinopoda and formanifera
166
what are actinopoda shells made out of
silica or chitin
167
what are formaniferan shells made out of
chambered shells made out of calcium carbonate
168
what is special about shelled amoeba pseudopodia
slender and pointed that extend from openings in their shells
169
what is an example of a parasitic zoomastigote
trypanosoma spp.
170
what disease is caused by trypanosoma
african sleeping sickness
171
what bug transmits african sleeping sickness
tse-tse bug
172
what disease is transmitted by assassin bugs
trypanosoma cruzi causes chagas' disease transmitted by this bug
173
what is the four step life cycle of trypanosoma?
1. passed from blood of infected human or cattle to gut of tse tse fly
2. reproduces through binary fission; some migrate to salivary gland
3. passed to new host through saliva of fly
4. reproduce through binary fission and occupy blood lymph and spinal fluids
174
phylum name of ciliates
ciliophora
175
two structural characteristics of ciliophora
1. lots of cilia for locomotion
| 2. dimorphic nuclei
176
what is the ploidy of a micronucleus
diploid
177
what is the ploidy of a macronucleus
polyploid
178
what is function of macronucleus
controls functions and is required for transverse binary fission
179
what is function of micronucleus
genetic recombination by conjugation
180
what are 8 steps in conjugation of paramecium
1. generically different paramecium align
2. micronucleus goes through meiosis
3. 3/4 of micronuclei disintegrate
4. remaining micronucleus goes through mitosis
5. paramecia exchange one micronucleus
6. two micronuclei fuse
7. paramecia separate
8. repeated mitosis of micronucleus creates new macronucleus
181
phylum name of sporozoans
apicomplexa
182
what is locomotion method of sporozoans
nonmotile
183
what are sporozoites
small cells produced by apicomplexans that are transmitted from host to host
184
how does a sporozoite penetrate into host cells
apex of cell has complex of organelles used to penetrate
185
9 step life cycle of plasmodium
1. anopheles mosquito bites human and transmits plasmodium sporozoites
2. sporozoites enter liver
3. binary fission to produce merozoites that burst from liver cells
4. merozoites enter blood stream and undergo binary fission
5. every 48-72 hours merozoites burst from blood cells causing chills and fever
6. merozoites enter digestive system of mosquito biting infected person and become gametocytes
7. gametocytes form gametes and sexual reproduction form diploid zygote
8. zygote undergoes meiosis followed by mitosis resulting in numerous haploid sporozoites that enter mosquito salivary gland
9. cycle starts over
186
why is temperature critical for transmission of malaria
at temperatures below 68 degrees fahrenheit (20 degrees celsius) plasmodium cannot complete growth cycle in anopheles mosquito
187
phylum name for slime molds?
mycetozoa
188
what are fungi-like traits of slime mold?
stalked sporangium that releases spore and plasmodium
189
what are protist like characteristics of slime molds?
amoeboid and flagellate forms
190
5 part life cycle of physarium (slime mold)
1. plasmodium spreads and crawls along feeding on organic debris
2. when conditions become harsh, stalks with fruiting bodies called sporangia appear and undergo meiosis. release tough haploid spores that are carried on wind
3. new cells released from spore; can change between amoeboid and flagellate forms
4. like forms syngamy to produce diploid zygotes
5. zygote undergoes mitosis without cytokinesis resulting in plasmodiumy
191
how do fungi get nutrients
heterotrophs that acquire nutrients by absorption using exoenzymes to digest externally
192
three roles of fungi
1. saprobes decompose organic matter and cycle carbon and nitrogen
2. parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from living hosts and can be pathogenic
3. mutualistic fungi absorb nutrients from host while also aiding host
193
what are fungi that are mutualistic with plants called
mycorrhizae
194
what is the toadstool or mushroom part of the fungus?
reproductive structure
195
what are vegetative structures of fungi
diffuse mat called mycelium composed of filaments called hyphae
196
what are four forms of hyphae
1. septate fungi - hyphae are divided into cells by septa
2. coenocytic fungi - lack septa; multinucleate unicellular
3. haustoria - penetrate into tissues of host to absorb
4. predatory - loops that inflate to trap nematodes
197
what are three steps of fungi asexual reproduction?
1. reproductive structures produce haploid spores asexually
2. some spores land on moist food and grow mycelia
3. haploid reproductive structure appears above ground to produce more spores
198
what allows organelles and nuclei to flow between cells in septate fungi?
large pores
199
what does cell wall of septate fungi contain instead of cellulose?
chitin
200
7 steps of fungi sexual reproductions
1. plasmogymy - cyctoplasm of two different fungi fuse
2. fungi is heterokaryon; if septate, haploid pair off and form dikaryote
3. karyogamy when two haploid nuclei fuse; produce diploid zygote
4. meiosis
5. reproduction structures appear
6. haploid spores are released
7. land on moist food and grow mycelia; enter asexual or sexual cycle
201
5 major phylum of fungi
```
chytridiomycota
zygomycota
ascomycota
basidiomycota
glomeromycota
```
202
why are chytridiomycota considered primitive
spores have flagella
203
hyphae type of chytridiomycota
coenocytic and parasitic
204
hyphae type of zygomycota
coenocytic
205
hyphae type of ascomycota
septate
206
hyphae type of basidiomycota
septate
207
what phylum of fungi is responsible for world-wide decline of amphibians
chytridiomycota
208
what phylum of fungi forms mycorrhizae
zygomycota
209
what phylum of fungi forms spores in sacs
ascomycota
210
what phylum of fungi has basidia
basidiomycota
211
what are basidia
club shaped reproductive structures
212
what phylum of fungi are imporant decomposers of plants and wood
basidiomycota
213
example of zygomycota?
Rhizopus (black bread mold)
214
2 examples of ascomycota?
morels and yeast
215
where are many glomeromycota located
roots of plants (mycorrhizae)
216
asexual life cyclo of rhizopus
coenocytic mycelia spread over food, produce sporangia that spread spores that grow into more mycelia
217
7 step sexual reproduction cycle of zygomycota
1. mycelia of opposite mating types grow special hyphal extensions that touch
2. gametangia - septum seperates several haploid nuclei from rest of hyphae.
3. plasmogymy - cytoplasm fuses forming heterokaryotic zygosporangium
4. thick coating prevents zygosporangium from drying out
5. conditions improve, karyogamy forms diploid nuclei
6. meiosis
7. sporangium grows and releases genetically diverse spores
218
what is the ploidy of most fungi
haploid
219
asexual cycle of ascomycete
mycelia produce specialized hyphae called conidia that produce chains of asexual, naked spores (not inside sporangia)
220
10 step sexual cycle of ascomycete
1. hyphae of opposite mating types intertwine and form antheridium (+) and ascogonium (-)
2. cytoplasmic bridge forms and nuclei goes from + to -
3. dikaryotic hyphae grow into ascocarp
4. ascus - cell wall forms at tip of dikaryotic hyphae
5. karyogamy
6. meiosis
7. mitosis (total of 8 haploid nuclei)
8. cell walls form around each nuclei creating 8 ascospores
9. mature ascospores leave together in a chain reaction.
10. spores land on food, germinate and grow mycelia
221
8 steps of basidiomycota sexual reproduction
1. opposite mating types of hyphae undergo plasmogymy
2. dikaryotic mycelia out compete haploid mycelia
3. rain or temperature changes cause basidiocarps (such as toadstools) to appear above ground
4. gills of basidiocarp lined with dikaryotic basidia cells
5. karyogamy produces diploid nuclei
6. meiosis; 4 nuclei per basidia
7. 4 nuclei separate to 4 basidiospores
8. basidiospores drop from cap, land in suitable habitat and grow into short lived haploid mycelia
222
what are deuteromycetes?
molds that have no known sexual cycle so cannot be classified into main phyla
223
what are yeasts
unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding
224
what are lichens
green algae or cyanobacteria + hyphae of fungi. symbiotic relationship allows lichens to live in habitats that neither species could live in alone
225
what is an example of a pioneer
lichens can aid in soil formation and nitrogen fixation so other organisms like plants can move into barren landscapes
226
how are lichens "indicators"
decrease in lichen species is an indication of reduced air quality
227
three types of lichens
1. fruticose (shrub-like)
2. follose (leaf-like)
3. crustose (crust-like)
