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Biology > Chapters 26-29, 31 > Flashcards

Chapters 26-29, 31 Flashcards

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0
Q

what is taxonomy

A

the process of grouping organisms together based on shared similarities that suggest they are related evolutionarily

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1
Q

who is the father of Taxonomy

A

Carolus Linnaeus

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2
Q

what is a taxon (plural taxa)

A

a group of shared similarities used in taxonomy

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3
Q

what does a prokarya have instead of a true nucleus

A

a nucleoid region

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4
Q

what is binomial nomenclature

A

the process of giving every organism a unique 2-part scientific name

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5
Q

what is the plural of genus and how is it pronounced

A

genera, pronounced similar to general

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6
Q

what is a specific epithet

A

a unique name following the genus identifying the species of an organism

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7
Q

what is a binomial (naming)

A

the 2-part scientific name of an organism

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8
Q

why is the binomial always capitalized or underlined

A

to indicate that it is Latin

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9
Q

who published Systema Naturae and in what year

A

Carolus Linnaeus 1735

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10
Q

how many pages was the first edition of Systema Naturae

A

11 pages

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11
Q

How many plants and animals were named and classified in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758)

A

over 12,000

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12
Q

In scholarly texts how is the scientist that first described an organism in (Botany) indicated

A

Abbreviated surname

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13
Q

In scholarly texts how is the scientist that first described an organism in (Zoology) indicated

A

full surname

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14
Q

How is it indicated if the genus of a species has been changed since the organism’s original description

A

Abbreviated (botany) or full (zoology) surname of describer and description date placed in parentheses

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15
Q

What is the Domain of Humans

A

Eukarya

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16
Q

What is the Kingdom of Humans

A

Animalia

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17
Q

What is the Phylum of Humans

A

Chordata

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18
Q

What is the Subphylum of Humans

A

Vertebrata

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19
Q

What is the Class of Humans

A

Mammalia

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20
Q

What is the Order of Humans

A

Primate

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21
Q

What is the Family of Humans

A

Hominidae

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22
Q

What is the Genus of Humans

A

Homo

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23
Q

What is the species of Humans

A

Homo (sapiens)

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24
Q

what organisms are considered eukarya

A

organisms made of eukaryotic cells

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25
Q

what organisms are considered animalia

A

multicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes (sponges to humans)

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26
Q

what organisms are considered Chordata

A

animals with a nerve chord (tunicates to humans)

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27
Q

what organisms are considered Mammalia

A

vertebrates with hair and mammary glands (mice to humans)

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28
Q

what organisms are considered Primate

A

mammals with short snouts, eyes forward, opposable thumbs (lemurs to humans)

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29
Q

what organisms are considered Hominidae

A

primates with prominent face, flattened nails, no tail (Humans, chimps, bonobos, gorillas, orangutans)

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30
Q

What organisms are considered Homo

A

Human

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31
Q

What does Homo sapiens mean?

A

wise human

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32
Q

what is phylogeny?

A

the evolutionary history of an organism

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33
Q

what are (5) ways we compare the evolutionary relatedness of organisms?

A
  1. comparative anatomy
  2. embryology
  3. physiology
  4. biochemistry
  5. genetics
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34
Q

what are homologous structures?

A

structures that are similar because they arose from a common ancestor

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35
Q

what are analogous structures?

A

structures that arose independently but appear similar because of convergent evolution

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36
Q

what is convergent evolution?

A

evolving from separate ancestors that required similar functions

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37
Q

what is a phylogenetic tree?

A

a “best guess” at the evolutionary history of a group of organisms

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38
Q

in a phylogenetic tree, what is an outgroup?

A

the organism that diverged from the common ancestor first and is thus least similar to the other organisms

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39
Q

what was the original two kingdom system?

A

animalia and plantae (photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria and sedentary organisms like fungi were sorted into plantae)

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40
Q

what years was the five-kingdom system considered the most accurate?

A

1969-1990

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41
Q

what are the five kingdoms of the five kingdom system?

A

monera (prokaryotes), protista (unicellular eukaryotes), fungi (multicellular saprotrophs), plantae and animalia

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42
Q

what causes the three domain system to be added to the tree of life?

A

Carol Woese provided molecular evidence that the prokaryotes are extremely diverse

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43
Q

what are the three domains?

A
  1. bacteria
  2. archaea
  3. eukarya
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44
Q

what two principles allow us to create the best guess for a phylogenetic true?

A
  1. principle of maximum parsimony - fewest evolutionary events
  2. principle of maximum likelihood - most likely explanation
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45
Q

how long have prokaryotes been on Earth? and how long were they alone?

A

3.5 billion years; 1.5 billion years

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46
Q

how much bigger are eukaryotes than prokaryotes?

A

about ten times bigger

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47
Q

what are two characteristics that eukarya and archaea have in common?

A
  1. no peptidoglycan in cell wall

2. histones in DNA

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48
Q

what is similar about the DNA of bacteria and archaea?

A

circular chromosomes

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49
Q

what are methanogens?

A

obligate anaerobes (archaea) that produce methane

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50
Q

what are extreme halophiles?

A

archaea that live in very salty (20%+) environments

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51
Q

what are extreme thermophiles?

A

archaea that live in hot springs and thermal vents in the ocean

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52
Q

what were likely the earliest prokaryotes?

A

extreme thermophiles

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53
Q

what are three common categories of prokaryotes based on cell shape?

A
  1. cocci (spheres): chains clusters and pairs
  2. bacilli (rods): may form chains, pairs
  3. spirilla/spirochetes (helices): single
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54
Q

what does the prefix diplo- indicate in prokaryotes

A

paired

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55
Q

what does staphylo- indicate in prokaryotes

A

clustered

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56
Q

what does strepto- indicate in prokaryotes?

A

chains

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57
Q

what is plasma membrane and cell wall of prokaryotes made out of?

A

peptidoglycan (sugar and polypeptides)

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58
Q

what compound absorbs the violet color in a gram stain?

A

peptidoglycan

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59
Q

which prokaryotes have simpler walls, gram positive or gram negative?

A

positive

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60
Q

what is different about gram negative prokaryotes?

A

less peptidoglycan and a second lipopolysaccharide membrane

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61
Q

what color are gram negative prokaryotes

A

pink

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62
Q

why do some prokaryotes stick to the host with a sticky capsule?

A

to reduce surface area and make it harder to kill the cell

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63
Q

what is a pili?

A

a long hairlike structure that adheres bacterium to host

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64
Q

what is a fimbriae?

A

short hairlike structures that adheres bacterium to host

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65
Q

what is a sex pilus?

A

a hair like protrusion used to exchange DNA between bacteria during conjugation

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66
Q

what is a bacterial chromosome?

A

a single large double-stranded DNA circle

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67
Q

where is the bacterial chromosome located?

A

in the nucleoid region where cytoplasm is less dense

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68
Q

what are plasmids

A

additional tiny pieces of circular DNA in bacteria

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69
Q

which replicates faster, plasmids or bacterial chromosome?

A

plasmids

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70
Q

what is the name of the prokaryotic process of asexual reproduction?

A

binary fission

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71
Q

what are three ways a bacterium can vary its DNA?

A
  1. transformation
  2. conjugation
  3. transduction
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72
Q

what is bacterial transformation?

A

when a bacteria takes in naked DNA from environment (can cross species)

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73
Q

what is bacterial conjugation?

A

transfer of DNA between two bacteria joined by a sex pillus. one way transfer, “male” to “female”

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74
Q

what is bacterial transduction

A

bacteriophages (viruses) carry bacterial DNA from host to host

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75
Q

what is a bacterial endospore

A

the bacteria replicates and encases it in a tough wall. can survive environmental extremes

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76
Q

what are photoautotrophs

A

use light energy to make organic molecules from CO2

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77
Q

what organism plays a major role in nitrogen fixation

A

cyanobacteria

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78
Q

what is nitrogen fixation

A

conversion from atmospheric N2 to ammonium (NH4+)

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79
Q

what are chemoautotrophs

A

energy from inorganic substances to make organic molecules from CO2

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80
Q

what are photoheterotrophs

A

use light energy and organic “food” to make ATP

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81
Q

what are chemoheterotrophs

A

consume food as the source for both energy and carbon

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82
Q

what are saprobes

A

chemotrophs that decompose dead material

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83
Q

what are parasites

A

chemoheterotrophs that absorb energy (carbon) from a host

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84
Q

what are obligate aerobes

A

need oxygen to grow

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85
Q

what are obligate anaerobes

A

poisoned by oxygen

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86
Q

what are facultative anaerobes

A

use oxygen if available, ferment if oxygen is unavailable

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87
Q

what was the food source for the earlier prokaryotes

A

organic molecules; photosynthesis evolved early in response to food shortage

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88
Q

what are opportunistic pathogens

A

normally found in body in low numbers, if immune system is weakened they multiply

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89
Q

what are exotoxins

A

poisonous proteins secreted by prokaryotes

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90
Q

what are endotoxins

A

poisonous proteins associated with outer membrane of some gram-negative bacteria

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91
Q

what are the purpose of exotoxins in a gram-positive bacteria

A

growth and metabolism

92
Q

what are four types of cellular organization for protists

A
  1. unicellular
  2. filamentous
  3. colonial
  4. multicellular
93
Q

what protists are photoautotrophs?

A

algae

94
Q

what protists are heterotrophs?

A

protozoa

95
Q

what are mixotrophs?

A

protists that can get nutrition from both food and photosynthesis

96
Q

what is the endomembrane hypothesis

A

internal membranes surrounding certain organelles (nuclear envelope, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum) resulted from infolding of the plasma membrane

97
Q

what is a plastic

A

sac that contains pigment or stores food

98
Q

what is the endosymbiotic hypothesis

A

mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts) were prokaryotes that entered cells as undigested prey

99
Q

what are endosymbionts

A

relationship where host and internal prokaryote benefit

100
Q

what is the timeline of organism nutrition sources? (chloroplastid, mitochondria, heterotrophs and autotrophs)

A
  1. heterotrophs, food shortage
  2. autotrophs, oxygen build up
  3. mitochondria (protect from oxygen)
  4. chloroplast
101
Q

what is primary endosymbiosis

A

cyanobacterium is engulfed by eukaryotic cell; 2 membranes

102
Q

what is secondary endosymbiosis

A

primary endosymbionts are engulfed by eukaryotic cell; 3-4 membranes

103
Q

phylum name of green algae?

A

chlorophyta

104
Q

what phylum is ancestor to land plants

A

chlorophyta

105
Q

what are the three similarities between chlorophyta and land plants

A
  1. chlorophylls a and b
  2. store food as starch
  3. cellulose in cell walls
106
Q

how many cells are in chlamydomonas

A

one

107
Q

how many chloroplast are in chlamydomonas

A

one large chloroplast

108
Q

what is a pyrenoid

A

within chloroplast, for starch production and storage

109
Q

what is a stigma

A

“eye spot” used to sense light

110
Q

are chlamydomonas diploid or haploid

A

haploid

111
Q

how do chlamydomonas asexually reproduce?

A

mitosis

112
Q

how do chlamydomonas sexually reproduce?

A

syngamy triggered by stress

113
Q

what are isogametes

A

gametes that look the same but have different mating types

114
Q

what happens when chlamydomonas reproduce sexually?

A

isogametes go through syngamy (fusion) producing diploid zygote within a zygospore. when conditions improve zygote goes through meiosis and produces haploids

115
Q

what is characteristic of spirogyra chloroplasts?

A

ribbon-like and arranged in spirals

116
Q

what is the shape of spirogyra

A

unbranched filament

117
Q

how do spirogyra reproduce sexually?

A

conjugation tubes

118
Q

what happens when a spirogyra produces sexually?

A

conjugation tube forms, contents are dumped from one cell to opposite mating type, nuclei fuse and meiosis occurs.

119
Q

what is the shape of cladophora

A

branched filaments

120
Q

what is alternation of generations in cladophora?

A

haploid gametophytes produce gametes that fuse and form diploid sporophytes; sporophytes make haploid cells through meiosis

121
Q

how many flagella do chlamydomonas have

A

two

122
Q

what is the structure of volvox

A

colony of chlamydomonas like cells embedded in spherical matrix

123
Q

are volvox cells haploid or diploid

A

haploid

124
Q

what are daughter colonies

A

bulges inside matrix of volvox from binary fission

125
Q

what is oogamy

A

when one gamete looks like an egg and other looks like sperm

126
Q

how does volvox produce sexually?

A

oogamy

127
Q

what happens when a volvox reproduces sexually

A

motile sperm fertilizes non-motile egg; diploid zygote forms zygospore; parent colony disintegrates and zygospore goes through meiosis and forms new colony through mitosis

128
Q

what is phylum name of brown algae

A

phaeophyta

129
Q

where are brown algae located

A

principle seaweed of temperate and polar regions (not tropical)

130
Q

what is an ecological importance of brown algae

A

food sources for humans and livestock

131
Q

what pigments are in brown algae

A

chlorophylls a and c and fucoxanthin

132
Q

how do brown algae store food?

A

laminarin or as oil

133
Q

what are brown algae walls made out of

A

cellulose

134
Q

are there any unicellular brown algae?

A

no, all are multicellular and usually very large

135
Q

what is the thallus of brown algae

A

multicellular but relatively unspecialized body

136
Q

what is the holdfast of brown algae

A

differentiation of thallus that anchors algae

137
Q

what are three differentiations of thallus in brown algae

A
  1. stipe (“stalk”)
  2. blade (“leaf”)
  3. holdfast (“root”)
138
Q

what are gas bladders

A

cells filled with oxygen that support brown algae in water

139
Q

what is phylum name of red algae

A

rhodophyta

140
Q

what pigments do rhodophyta contain

A

chlorophylls a and d and phycobilins

141
Q

what is significant about red algae having red pigments

A

they can absorb wavelengths of light at greater depths of water than other algae

142
Q

what is the relationship between cyanobacteria and rhodophyta?

A

its believed that the chloroplasts of red algae evolved from ancestors of modern cyanobacteria by primary endosymbiosis

143
Q

what pigments do diatoms have

A

chlorophylls a and c and xanthophylls

144
Q

how do diagoms store food

A

oils

145
Q

what is the ploidy of diatoms

A

unicellular diploids

146
Q

what is the phylum name of dinoflagellates

A

dinoflagellata

147
Q

what is the structure of dinoflagellates

A

Armor-like cellulose walls with grooves housing two flagella

148
Q

describe the structure of diatoms

A

silicon-containing glass-like wall that forms a double shell

149
Q

what are “red tides”

A

outbreaks of dinoflagellates that can kill fish with their toxins

150
Q

what prokaryote is unfortunately called an algae?

A

cyanobacteria is called blue-green algae as a misnomer

151
Q

what algae can be bioluminescent?

A

dinoflagellates

152
Q

what are euglenoids?

A

unicellular fresh water algae that have a pellicle instead of a cell wall

153
Q

what pigments do Euglenoids have

A

chlorophylls a and b

154
Q

what is special about euglenoids chloroplasts?

A

enclosed by a triple membrane suggesting secondary endosymbiosis

155
Q

how many flagella do euglenoids have?

A

two flagella

156
Q

what are protozoans

A

heterotrophic protists

157
Q

how do protozoas store food?

A

food vacuoles containing digestive enzymes

158
Q

what is the purpose of contractile vacuoles

A

expel excess water from osmosis to prevent rupture

159
Q

what are the three divisions of protozoans

A

divided by locomation

  1. pseudopodia
  2. flagella
  3. cilia
160
Q

what is a stigma on a euglena?

A

red pigmented eyespot that allows them to position themselves for maximum photosynthesis

161
Q

what are amoebas

A

unicellular protozoans that move and feed by blunt cellular extensions called pseudopodia

162
Q

where are amoeba found

A

terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems

163
Q

what is a test

A

a shell-like coating formed by a secreted protein

164
Q

what parasitic amoeba causes amoebic dysentery in humans

A

entamoeba histolytica

165
Q

what are two types of shelled amoebas

A

actinopoda and formanifera

166
Q

what are actinopoda shells made out of

A

silica or chitin

167
Q

what are formaniferan shells made out of

A

chambered shells made out of calcium carbonate

168
Q

what is special about shelled amoeba pseudopodia

A

slender and pointed that extend from openings in their shells

169
Q

what is an example of a parasitic zoomastigote

A

trypanosoma spp.

170
Q

what disease is caused by trypanosoma

A

african sleeping sickness

171
Q

what bug transmits african sleeping sickness

A

tse-tse bug

172
Q

what disease is transmitted by assassin bugs

A

trypanosoma cruzi causes chagas’ disease transmitted by this bug

173
Q

what is the four step life cycle of trypanosoma?

A
  1. passed from blood of infected human or cattle to gut of tse tse fly
  2. reproduces through binary fission; some migrate to salivary gland
  3. passed to new host through saliva of fly
  4. reproduce through binary fission and occupy blood lymph and spinal fluids
174
Q

phylum name of ciliates

A

ciliophora

175
Q

two structural characteristics of ciliophora

A
  1. lots of cilia for locomotion

2. dimorphic nuclei

176
Q

what is the ploidy of a micronucleus

A

diploid

177
Q

what is the ploidy of a macronucleus

A

polyploid

178
Q

what is function of macronucleus

A

controls functions and is required for transverse binary fission

179
Q

what is function of micronucleus

A

genetic recombination by conjugation

180
Q

what are 8 steps in conjugation of paramecium

A
  1. generically different paramecium align
  2. micronucleus goes through meiosis
  3. 3/4 of micronuclei disintegrate
  4. remaining micronucleus goes through mitosis
  5. paramecia exchange one micronucleus
  6. two micronuclei fuse
  7. paramecia separate
  8. repeated mitosis of micronucleus creates new macronucleus
181
Q

phylum name of sporozoans

A

apicomplexa

182
Q

what is locomotion method of sporozoans

A

nonmotile

183
Q

what are sporozoites

A

small cells produced by apicomplexans that are transmitted from host to host

184
Q

how does a sporozoite penetrate into host cells

A

apex of cell has complex of organelles used to penetrate

185
Q

9 step life cycle of plasmodium

A
  1. anopheles mosquito bites human and transmits plasmodium sporozoites
  2. sporozoites enter liver
  3. binary fission to produce merozoites that burst from liver cells
  4. merozoites enter blood stream and undergo binary fission
  5. every 48-72 hours merozoites burst from blood cells causing chills and fever
  6. merozoites enter digestive system of mosquito biting infected person and become gametocytes
  7. gametocytes form gametes and sexual reproduction form diploid zygote
  8. zygote undergoes meiosis followed by mitosis resulting in numerous haploid sporozoites that enter mosquito salivary gland
  9. cycle starts over
186
Q

why is temperature critical for transmission of malaria

A

at temperatures below 68 degrees fahrenheit (20 degrees celsius) plasmodium cannot complete growth cycle in anopheles mosquito

187
Q

phylum name for slime molds?

A

mycetozoa

188
Q

what are fungi-like traits of slime mold?

A

stalked sporangium that releases spore and plasmodium

189
Q

what are protist like characteristics of slime molds?

A

amoeboid and flagellate forms

190
Q

5 part life cycle of physarium (slime mold)

A
  1. plasmodium spreads and crawls along feeding on organic debris
  2. when conditions become harsh, stalks with fruiting bodies called sporangia appear and undergo meiosis. release tough haploid spores that are carried on wind
  3. new cells released from spore; can change between amoeboid and flagellate forms
  4. like forms syngamy to produce diploid zygotes
  5. zygote undergoes mitosis without cytokinesis resulting in plasmodiumy
191
Q

how do fungi get nutrients

A

heterotrophs that acquire nutrients by absorption using exoenzymes to digest externally

192
Q

three roles of fungi

A
  1. saprobes decompose organic matter and cycle carbon and nitrogen
  2. parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from living hosts and can be pathogenic
  3. mutualistic fungi absorb nutrients from host while also aiding host
193
Q

what are fungi that are mutualistic with plants called

A

mycorrhizae

194
Q

what is the toadstool or mushroom part of the fungus?

A

reproductive structure

195
Q

what are vegetative structures of fungi

A

diffuse mat called mycelium composed of filaments called hyphae

196
Q

what are four forms of hyphae

A
  1. septate fungi - hyphae are divided into cells by septa
  2. coenocytic fungi - lack septa; multinucleate unicellular
  3. haustoria - penetrate into tissues of host to absorb
  4. predatory - loops that inflate to trap nematodes
197
Q

what are three steps of fungi asexual reproduction?

A
  1. reproductive structures produce haploid spores asexually
  2. some spores land on moist food and grow mycelia
  3. haploid reproductive structure appears above ground to produce more spores
198
Q

what allows organelles and nuclei to flow between cells in septate fungi?

A

large pores

199
Q

what does cell wall of septate fungi contain instead of cellulose?

A

chitin

200
Q

7 steps of fungi sexual reproductions

A
  1. plasmogymy - cyctoplasm of two different fungi fuse
  2. fungi is heterokaryon; if septate, haploid pair off and form dikaryote
  3. karyogamy when two haploid nuclei fuse; produce diploid zygote
  4. meiosis
  5. reproduction structures appear
  6. haploid spores are released
  7. land on moist food and grow mycelia; enter asexual or sexual cycle
201
Q

5 major phylum of fungi

A 
chytridiomycota 
zygomycota
ascomycota
basidiomycota
glomeromycota
202
Q

why are chytridiomycota considered primitive

A

spores have flagella

203
Q

hyphae type of chytridiomycota

A

coenocytic and parasitic

204
Q

hyphae type of zygomycota

A

coenocytic

205
Q

hyphae type of ascomycota

A

septate

206
Q

hyphae type of basidiomycota

A

septate

207
Q

what phylum of fungi is responsible for world-wide decline of amphibians

A

chytridiomycota

208
Q

what phylum of fungi forms mycorrhizae

A

zygomycota

209
Q

what phylum of fungi forms spores in sacs

A

ascomycota

210
Q

what phylum of fungi has basidia

A

basidiomycota

211
Q

what are basidia

A

club shaped reproductive structures

212
Q

what phylum of fungi are imporant decomposers of plants and wood

A

basidiomycota

213
Q

example of zygomycota?

A

Rhizopus (black bread mold)

214
Q

2 examples of ascomycota?

A

morels and yeast

215
Q

where are many glomeromycota located

A

roots of plants (mycorrhizae)

216
Q

asexual life cyclo of rhizopus

A

coenocytic mycelia spread over food, produce sporangia that spread spores that grow into more mycelia

217
Q

7 step sexual reproduction cycle of zygomycota

A
  1. mycelia of opposite mating types grow special hyphal extensions that touch
  2. gametangia - septum seperates several haploid nuclei from rest of hyphae.
  3. plasmogymy - cytoplasm fuses forming heterokaryotic zygosporangium
  4. thick coating prevents zygosporangium from drying out
  5. conditions improve, karyogamy forms diploid nuclei
  6. meiosis
  7. sporangium grows and releases genetically diverse spores
218
Q

what is the ploidy of most fungi

A

haploid

219
Q

asexual cycle of ascomycete

A

mycelia produce specialized hyphae called conidia that produce chains of asexual, naked spores (not inside sporangia)

220
Q

10 step sexual cycle of ascomycete

A
  1. hyphae of opposite mating types intertwine and form antheridium (+) and ascogonium (-)
  2. cytoplasmic bridge forms and nuclei goes from + to -
  3. dikaryotic hyphae grow into ascocarp
  4. ascus - cell wall forms at tip of dikaryotic hyphae
  5. karyogamy
  6. meiosis
  7. mitosis (total of 8 haploid nuclei)
  8. cell walls form around each nuclei creating 8 ascospores
  9. mature ascospores leave together in a chain reaction.
  10. spores land on food, germinate and grow mycelia
221
Q

8 steps of basidiomycota sexual reproduction

A
  1. opposite mating types of hyphae undergo plasmogymy
  2. dikaryotic mycelia out compete haploid mycelia
  3. rain or temperature changes cause basidiocarps (such as toadstools) to appear above ground
  4. gills of basidiocarp lined with dikaryotic basidia cells
  5. karyogamy produces diploid nuclei
  6. meiosis; 4 nuclei per basidia
  7. 4 nuclei separate to 4 basidiospores
  8. basidiospores drop from cap, land in suitable habitat and grow into short lived haploid mycelia
222
Q

what are deuteromycetes?

A

molds that have no known sexual cycle so cannot be classified into main phyla

223
Q

what are yeasts

A

unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding

224
Q

what are lichens

A

green algae or cyanobacteria + hyphae of fungi. symbiotic relationship allows lichens to live in habitats that neither species could live in alone

225
Q

what is an example of a pioneer

A

lichens can aid in soil formation and nitrogen fixation so other organisms like plants can move into barren landscapes

226
Q

how are lichens “indicators”

A

decrease in lichen species is an indication of reduced air quality

227
Q

three types of lichens

A
  1. fruticose (shrub-like)
  2. follose (leaf-like)
  3. crustose (crust-like)

Biology (9 decks)

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