Chapter Fifteen HUNGER Flashcards
What was the purpose of Francis Benedict’s experiment in 1917?
To determine if humans could adjust to a lower nutritional level and thrive
Benedict’s experiment involved dieters consuming 1400 to 2100 calories a day.
What was the average weight loss expected for subjects in Benedict’s experiment?
10 percent in a month
This was followed by maintaining reduced weights for another two months.
What were some psychological effects experienced by subjects in Benedict’s experiment?
- Constant hunger
- Feeling cold
- 30% decrease in metabolism
- Decrease in sexual interest
These symptoms were observed even before significant weight loss occurred.
What significant physiological changes did subjects in Benedict’s study undergo?
- Decrease in blood pressure
- Decrease in pulse rate
- Anemia
- Marked weakness during physical activity
These changes were linked to the diet rather than weight loss.
What was the result of the second squad of men in Benedict’s study after dieting?
They overate and regained all lost weight in less than two weeks
They also gained an average of eight pounds more than their initial weight.
What was the goal of Ancel Keys’ experiment in 1944?
To replicate Benedict’s experiment and study the effects of starvation
Keys aimed to understand the physiological and psychological effects of starvation faced by Allied troops.
What was the average calorie intake for subjects in Keys’ semi-starvation diet?
1,570 calories per day
This was significantly lower than their previous intake.
What were some of the physical effects observed in Keys’ subjects during the experiment?
- Slow nail growth
- Hair loss
- Reduced pulse rates
- Slow healing of cuts
These effects were indicative of the body’s response to starvation.
What psychological symptoms were reported by subjects in Keys’ study?
- Loss of ambition
- Depression
- Irritability
- Loss of libido
These symptoms were described as a pattern characteristic of ‘growing old.’
What did Keys’ subjects do to manage their hunger during the semi-starvation period?
- Collected recipes
- Studied cookbooks
- Chewed gum and drank coffee excessively
Food became an obsession for the subjects.
How did the rehabilitation phase affect Keys’ subjects after the semi-starvation diet?
They remained hungry and gained weight rapidly
Subjects added an average of ten pounds of fat by the end of rehabilitation.
What was a common outcome for subjects after both Benedict’s and Keys’ experiments?
They regained weight and body fat quickly after resuming normal eating
This highlighted the challenges of maintaining weight loss.
What did the 1998 Handbook of Obesity refer to as ‘conventional reducing diets’?
Diets of eight to twelve hundred calories a day
These diets are considered more restrictive than those used in earlier studies.
What did Jules Hirsch’s 1995 experiment reveal about obese subjects on calorie restriction?
They experienced disproportionate reductions in energy expenditure
This indicated the body’s resistance to weight loss.
What paradox regarding obesity is highlighted in the text?
The contradiction between the belief that obesity can be easily managed through diet and exercise versus the documented failure of semi-starvation diets
This paradox has been noted for over fifty years.
What percentage of subjects in Albert Stunkard’s 1959 analysis lost 20 pounds on semi-starvation diets?
25 percent
This was based on his review of eight reports in the literature.
What was the conclusion drawn from Stunkard’s experience with obese patients on semi-starvation diets?
Semi-starvation diets were remarkably ineffective as a treatment for obesity
Only 12% of his patients lost 20 pounds, and only 1 patient lost 40 pounds.
What percentage of subjects lost twenty pounds on semi-starvation diets according to the articles discussed?
25%
This figure reflects a small weight loss for the severely overweight individuals in the studies.
What percentage of subjects successfully lost forty pounds on semi-starvation diets?
5%
This indicates a significant difficulty in achieving substantial weight loss through this method.
What was Stunkard’s experience with weight loss among his patients on balanced diets?
Only 12% lost 20 lb and only 1 patient lost 40 lb
This illustrates the low success rate of weight loss treatments in his study.
What conclusion did Stunkard reach about semi-starvation diets as a treatment for obesity?
Adverse effects often outweighed benefits
He noted that attempts at weight reduction can lead to anxiety and depression.
According to a 2002 Cochrane Collaboration review, how did low-fat diets compare to calorie-restricted diets in terms of weight loss?
Induced no more weight loss than calorie-restricted diets
The weight loss achieved in both cases was clinically insignificant.
What was the average weight loss reported in trials of low-fat diets identified by the U.S. Department of Agriculture?
Not quite nine pounds over six months
This reflects the limited effectiveness of calorie-restricted diets.
What did the Women’s Health Initiative find regarding weight loss after eight years on a low-fat diet?
Participants weighed only two pounds less than when they started
Their average waist circumference increased, indicating no effective fat loss.
What do obesity researchers recommend despite evidence against semi-starvation diets?
Dietary therapy remains the cornerstone of treatment
This reflects a contradiction in the recognition of poor long-term results.
What is considered the cornerstone of therapy for obesity according to Joslin’s Diabetes Mellitus?
Reduction of caloric intake
However, achieving this is noted to be quite difficult.
What deficit is predicted to produce a weight loss of 2.2 pounds?
A deficit of 7500 calories
This highlights the challenge in achieving significant weight loss through small caloric reductions.
True or False: Moderate exercise has been shown to lead to significant increases in energy expenditure.
False
Moderate exercise typically results in insignificant increases in energy expenditure.
What did Russell Wilder note about weight loss and physical exercise in 1932?
Patients tended to lose more weight with bed rest
He observed that strenuous exercise slowed the rate of weight loss.
According to Louis Newburgh, how many flights of stairs would a 250-pound man need to climb to burn the calories of one slice of bread?
Twenty flights of stairs
This illustrates the inefficiency of exercise for significant weight loss.
What is a common consequence of more strenuous exercise according to Hugo Rony?
Significant increase in appetite
This can counteract the calorie deficit created by exercise.
Who was a prominent proponent of exercise for weight control in the 1950s?
Jean Mayer
He challenged previous beliefs regarding exercise and weight management.
What did Mayer’s studies in the 1960s reveal about the energy expenditure of overweight high-school girls?
They spent only a third as much time in physical activity as lean girls
This suggests a relationship between inactivity and obesity.
What phenomenon did Mayer observe in infants regarding obesity and activity levels?
Fatter babies were quiet and placid, while thinner babies cried a lot and moved a lot
This indicates that innate activity levels may influence obesity.
What major societal change did Mayer attribute to the increase in obesity in the mid-twentieth century?
Increased sedentary lifestyles
He noted that modern conveniences made lives more inactive.
What did Mayer claim about the relationship between physical activity and obesity?
Reduced physical activity is the most important factor in obesity
This perspective was controversial and had its shortcomings.
What did Hugo Rony suggest about the relationship between obesity and physical activity?
Obesity may affect the impulse to be physically active
This raises questions about causality between inactivity and obesity.
What is Mayer’s hypothesis regarding physical activity and obesity?
Mayer’s hypothesis suggests that reduced physical activity leads to obesity, but it does not clarify cause and effect.
What observation did Hugo Rony make about obese individuals?
Many obese persons show decreased impulse to muscle activity, suggesting obesity may affect physical activity levels.
What alternative explanation exists for the relationship between obesity and inactivity?
Both obesity and physical inactivity may be symptoms of the same underlying cause.
How does poverty relate to obesity?
Obesity is associated with poverty, where manual laborers, who are less advantaged, often have higher obesity rates.
What is the caloric balance issue related to exercise and diet?
Exercise accomplishes little in tilting the caloric balance compared to modest dietary restrictions.
What did Mayer claim about the caloric expenditure of exercise?
Mayer claimed that even small caloric expenditures from exercise accumulate over time, leading to weight reduction.
What was Mayer’s stance on the relationship between exercise and appetite?
Mayer suggested that exercise does not necessarily increase appetite.
What findings did Mayer’s studies with rats and mill workers in India report?
Mayer claimed that exercised rats ate less than sedentary rats and that more active mill workers weighed more and ate more.
What criticism did Mayer’s studies face regarding their validity?
Mayer’s studies were criticized for lacking replicability and for drawing conclusions without solid evidence.
What was the conclusion of the NIH conferences on obesity regarding exercise?
The NIH concluded that the importance of exercise in weight control is less than believed, as it tends to increase food consumption.
What did Judith Stern note about the contribution of exercise to weight-loss programs?
Stern noted that the scientific literature shows a minor contribution of exercise to most weight-loss programs.
What did reports from the USDA recommend about physical activity?
Reports recommended increased physical activity for adults, up to ninety minutes a day, despite unimpressive evidence for weight loss.
What did the Finnish review reveal about clinical trials on exercise and weight maintenance?
The review found only a few clinical trials with inconsistent results regarding exercise’s effectiveness in maintaining weight.
What inconsistency did the Finnish investigators find in their analysis of exercise studies?
Some studies suggested physical activity might inhibit weight gain, others indicated it could accelerate it, or have no effect.
What was the outcome of long-term research on Mayer’s hypothesis?
Research over forty years failed to support Mayer’s hypothesis that physical activity induces weight loss or inhibits weight gain.
True or False: Mayer believed that exercise could lead to a decrease in appetite without any exceptions.
False
Fill in the blank: Mayer’s advocacy of exercise for weight control faced ____ from physicians working with obese patients.
criticism
What did the 1977 New York Times Magazine article question about exercise?
It questioned whether exercise prolongs life and provides protection against heart disease.
What did Jane Brody claim about exercise in relation to weight loss in 1989?
She claimed exercise increases metabolism, acts as an appetite suppressant, and builds muscle tissue that burns more calories.
What did Mayer assert in his syndicated column about exercise and weight loss?
Mayer asserted that exercise makes weight melt away faster and does not stimulate appetite.
What did the 1989 New York Times suggest when exercise isn’t enough for weight loss?
It suggested ensuring that you don’t overeat.
What did the studies on laboratory animals reveal about exercise’s effect on appetite?
Rats forced to exercise might limit intake, but tended to eat more on non-exercise days.
What was the conclusion regarding the effectiveness of exercise in weight control?
Exercise has not been shown to have a significant impact on weight control as Mayer suggested.
What was the relationship between exercise and weight change according to the Finnish investigators?
The association between physical activity and weight change was found to be more complex than initially assumed.
What is the association between physical activity and weight change according to the research?
The association is more complex than assumed.
What hypothesis did Mayer propose regarding physical activity?
Physical activity induces weight loss or inhibits weight gain.
What has the analysis of Mayer’s hypothesis devolved into over the decades?
Analysis of whether an exercise program inhibits weight gain by three ounces or accelerates it by two.
What happens to appetite when physical activity increases?
Appetite and thus calories consumed will increase to compensate.
How did clinicians and public-health authorities perceive hunger?
As a phenomenon exclusive to the brain and a question of willpower.
What is the relationship between physical activity and hunger?
Hunger increases in proportion to the calories we expend.
What happens when calorie intake is restricted?
It will leave us hungry until we make up the deficit.
What observation is fundamental to understanding weight gain and loss?
The increase in appetite proportional to calories expended.
What constituted the diet mentioned in the text?
Roughly 400 calories of protein, 270 calories of fat, and 900 calories of carbohydrates.
What was the perception of Stunkard’s analysis regarding dietary treatment of obesity?
It was seen as a condemnation of all methods of dietary treatment.
What does Walter Willett and Meir Stampfer note about physical activity’s impact on energy intake?
Physical activity is the primary determinant of variation in energy intake.
According to Willett and Stampfer, how can energy intake be interpreted?
As a crude measure of physical activity.
What impression did Mayer give about the studies he referenced?
That they included multiple studies in animals and humans.
How many studies had Mayer actually performed on humans and animals?
One study of each.
