Chapter Eight THE SCIENCE OF THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS Flashcards
What is one of the most precious faculties of the human mind necessary for the development of science?
Forming hypotheses
Hypotheses can sometimes lead to confusion and need to be cleared for operational concepts to grow.
What dietary staples were primarily consumed by the islanders of Tokelau in the 1970s?
- Coconuts
- Fish
- Breadfruit
Breadfruit was introduced in the late nineteenth century.
What percentage of calories in the Tokelau diet came from coconut in the 1970s?
More than 70 percent
Over 50 percent of these calories came from fat, with 90 percent being saturated fat.
What was the population of Tokelau by the mid-1960s?
Almost two thousand
What was the purpose of the Tokelau Island Migration Study (TIMS)?
To study the health and diet of Tokelauans who migrated to New Zealand and those who remained on the islands.
What significant dietary change occurred in Tokelau in the mid-1970s?
Establishment of a cash economy and trading posts led to decreased coconut consumption and increased sugar and flour consumption.
What was the increase in sugar consumption observed during the dietary changes on Tokelau?
Sevenfold increase
What health problems were prevalent in Tokelau before the 1970s?
- Skin diseases
- Asthma
- Infectious diseases (chicken pox, measles, leprosy)
What chronic diseases appeared in Tokelau after the 1970s?
- Diabetes
- Hypertension
- Heart disease
- Gout
- Cancer
What happened during the five-month isolation of Tokelau after the Cenpac Rounder ran aground in 1979?
Tokelauans returned to a pre-European diet of coconut and fish, resulting in improved health.
What immediate dietary changes occurred for Tokelauan migrants in New Zealand?
- Bread and potatoes replaced breadfruit
- Meat replaced fish
- Coconuts virtually vanished from the diet
What was the impact of migration on the incidence of chronic diseases among Tokelauans?
Increased incidence of hypertension, diabetes, gout, and coronary heart disease.
What is Syndrome X?
A term proposed to describe metabolic abnormalities common to obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.
What are some characteristics of Syndrome X?
- Elevated triglycerides
- Low HDL cholesterol
- Hypertension
- Hyperinsulinemia
- Insulin resistance
- Glucose intolerance
What has been the recent recognition of Syndrome X by health authorities?
Recognized as metabolic syndrome by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute in 2001.
What dietary components are linked to the development of metabolic syndrome?
- Sugar
- Refined carbohydrates
- White flour
How did the dietary changes in the U.S. since the 1940s affect cholesterol levels?
Lowered LDL cholesterol levels due to decreased consumption of saturated fat and cholesterol.
What is the saccharine disease hypothesis?
The idea that related diseases like diabetes and heart disease share common causes, primarily linked to sugar and refined carbohydrates.
What does the carbohydrate hypothesis of chronic disease suggest?
Chronic diseases are exacerbated by the consumption of sugar, flour, and easily digestible carbohydrates.
What was the historical perspective on chronic diseases over the past fifty years?
Assumed to be coincidentally related, each with unique causal factors linked to Western diet and lifestyle.
What is the implication of the Tokelau experience for understanding chronic diseases?
Increased sugar and flour in their diets are believed to have caused metabolic syndrome and related chronic diseases.
What principle does Cleave’s common-cause hypothesis align with?
Occam’s razor
What is the impact of refined carbohydrates on health according to the text?
Linked to increased incidence of chronic diseases.
What does homeostasis refer to in the context of chronic diseases?
A fundamental concept for understanding the nature of living organisms and their physiological balance.
What is homeostasis?
The stability of the internal environment in living organisms
Homeostasis is essential for the survival of organisms.
Who observed the interdependence of body parts in the mid-nineteenth century?
Claude Bernard
Bernard described living beings as a ‘harmonious ensemble’.
What is the range of normal body temperature according to Claude Bernard?
Between 97.3°F and 99.1°F
This stability is crucial for maintaining life.
Who coined the term homeostasis?
Walter Cannon
He described it as ‘the wisdom of the body’.
What does homeostasis technically mean?
‘Standing the same’
However, it refers to a dynamic equilibrium in biological systems.
What does the hypothalamus regulate?
Homeostasis through the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system
It modulates involuntary functions and hormone release.
What hormone is primarily responsible for regulating metabolism?
Insulin
Insulin regulates fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism.
What is metabolic syndrome?
A cluster of metabolic abnormalities associated with chronic diseases
It includes conditions like obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.
What hypothesis does Peter Cleave propose regarding chronic disease?
The carbohydrate hypothesis of chronic disease
It suggests that high sugar and refined carbohydrate diets disrupt homeostasis.
What is the definition of hypertension?
Systolic blood pressure higher than 140 and diastolic blood pressure higher than 90
Hypertension is a major risk factor for heart disease and stroke.
Is there conclusive evidence that salt causes hypertension?
No, evidence remains inconclusive and contradictory
Studies have failed to consistently confirm the salt-hypertension connection.
What is the effect of reducing salt intake on blood pressure?
It may lower blood pressure by 4 to 5 mm Hg in hypertensives
This reduction is often considered clinically insignificant.
What is the relationship between obesity and hypertension?
Obesity is common among hypertensives and vice versa
They are interrelated risk factors for each other.
True or False: Hypertension is only caused by excess salt consumption.
False
The causes of hypertension are multifactorial and not solely linked to salt.
What role does the endocrine system play in homeostasis?
It regulates hormone release essential for maintaining internal balance
Hormones control energy production, growth, and the internal environment.
Fill in the blank: Claude Bernard stated that all vital mechanisms have the object of preserving constant the conditions of life in the _______.
milieu intérieur
This concept is central to understanding homeostasis.
What did Hans Krebs emphasize about the wholeness of the organism?
Neglecting it can lead to false ideas and erroneous deductions
This highlights the importance of understanding systems in biology.
What is the primary function of insulin beyond blood sugar regulation?
Regulating fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism
Insulin’s role is critical in energy utilization and storage.
What is the consequence of chronic hyperinsulinemia?
Tissues become resistant to insulin
This condition is linked to metabolic syndrome.
What instrument became widely used for measuring blood pressure in the late 1920s?
Sphygmomanometer
Who noted that hypertension was specific to Western societies and affluent social classes?
Cyril Donnison
What was the average blood pressure trend in isolated populations eating traditional diets?
Low blood pressure
What did Donnison observe about the blood pressure of Kenyan nomads compared to European men?
Lower average systolic blood pressure in older Kenyan nomads
What change occurred in blood pressure among native populations with exposure to Western lifestyles?
Blood pressure began to rise with age
What percentage of native Africans were diagnosed with clinical hypertension by the mid-1960s?
Over 30 percent
What hypothesis began to receive serious attention in the 1960s regarding hypertension?
Salt hypothesis
What dietary changes were associated with the rise of hypertension in isolated populations?
Access to Western diets, including salt-rich processed foods
What did researchers conclude was responsible for the absence of hypertension in isolated populations?
Traditional diets
What other dietary component besides salt was implicated in hypertension emergence?
Refined carbohydrates
What did Walter Bloom’s research reveal about carbohydrate consumption?
Carbohydrates cause water retention by inhibiting sodium excretion
What is the relationship between insulin and hypertension as discussed in the text?
Chronically elevated insulin levels may initiate the hypertensive process
True or False: The discussion of hypertension prevention primarily focused on the salt hypothesis.
True
What physiological response does insulin stimulate that can raise blood pressure?
Stimulates the nervous system
What did Lewis Landsberg’s research indicate about insulin levels and blood pressure?
Higher insulin levels lead to increased heart rate and blood vessel constriction
Fill in the blank: The condition of having chronically elevated insulin levels is known as _______.
Hyperinsulinemia
What did the text suggest about the historical bias in nutrition research?
Overwhelming belief in the dietary-fat hypothesis
What are the five threads discussed in the upcoming chapters regarding metabolic syndrome?
- Cholesterol and heart disease
- Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia
- Implications for diabetes
- Effects of table sugar and high-fructose corn syrup
- Physiological repercussions of metabolic syndrome
What was the increase in sugar consumption per person per year from 1961 to 1980?
From seven pounds to sixty-nine pounds
What is the preferred public-health terminology for the syndrome identified by Reaven?
Metabolic syndrome
What was the increase in pounds per person per year from 1961 to 1980?
From seven pounds to sixty-nine pounds
This increase was nearly tenfold.
Who is credited with identifying metabolic syndrome?
Reaven
Reaven’s work compelled diabetes and heart disease research communities to take notice.
What is the preferred public health terminology for Syndrome X?
Metabolic syndrome
In what year did the Washington Post first mention metabolic syndrome?
1999
In what context did the Washington Post first mention Reaven’s research?
In an article about popular weight-loss diets
What was the second mention of metabolic syndrome in the Washington Post about?
Risk factor for heart disease
How many articles had the Washington Post published that touched on cholesterol and heart disease by 2001?
A couple of thousand articles
