Chapter 9: Violence in Sport

Question 1

What are the distinctions between aggression and violence in the context of sports, and how do sociologists view these concepts?

Answer 1

Aggression in sports refers to any behavior, whether verbal or physical, intended to dominate, control, or cause harm. It emphasizes the intent to harm, and in contact sports, the focus may be on holding ground or pushing back. Violence, a more specific form of aggression, involves behavior intended to injure another person physically. Unlike aggression, violence is characterized by the absence of intention, occurring due to the use of excessive physical force. Sociologists consider intent when discussing aggression and highlight the potential for harm in both concepts.

Question 2

What is sports crowd violence, and what are some examples of actions by partisan fans that contribute to violence in the sports environment?

Answer 2

Sports crowd violence involves acts of verbal or physical aggression by partisan fans, either at or away from the sports arena.

Examples include verbal abuse, physical altercations, and vandalism. Potential outcomes involve harm to individuals, property, and legal consequences.

Question 3

What does the term “Sports-Related Violence (SRV)” encompass, and how does it offer a broader view of physical violence in the context of sports?

Answer 3

Sports-Related Violence (SRV) is any aggressive, harmful, or unjust act carried out in the context of sport, threatening or causing injury or damage to persons, animals, or property. It provides a more expansive definition of physical violence in sports, encompassing direct acts of violence within or outside the rules of the game and harmful acts that threaten or violate human rights and civil liberties.

Question 4

What are the different types of on-the-field violence in sports, and how are they categorized based on characteristics and consequences?

Answer 4

Brutal body contact: Involves physical and forceful contact inherent to the sport, generally accepted as part of the game.

Borderline violence: Somewhat regulated, results in penalties but is accepted with minor consequences.

Quasi-criminal violence: Involves high penalties, risky actions that could cause significant harm, and is not common in regular play.

Criminal violence: Goes beyond sportsmanship norms, involves serious harm, and is considered outside the realm of fair play. Examples are rare and often result from dirty or unusual play.

Question 5

Instinct Theory - Social Psychology:

Answer 5

Violence is seen as a “natural” form of human behavior rooted in an innate, biological instinct to act aggressively.

Catharsis, the release of pent-up frustration or aggression in a safe environment (e.g., physical sports).

Question 6

What is Catharsis? (instinct theory)

Answer 6

Catharsis, the release of pent-up frustration or aggression in a safe environment (e.g., physical sports).

Question 7

Frustration & Aggression theory: Sports Setting and Frustration Release:

Answer 7

Individuals act aggressively in response to frustration, discharged safely through catharsis.

Sports environments act as a “safety valve,” providing a controlled outlet for aggression influenced by the environment.

Question 8

Social Learning Theory - Learned Behavior:

Answer 8

Violence is a product of observation and interaction, learned through socialization and cultural understandings.
Approval and reward from parents, teammates, coaches, and media contribute to the acceptance of violence.

Question 9

Institutionalization of Violence in Sport Theory:

Answer 9

Parents, teammates, commercialization, and media can unintentionally encourage or tolerate aggression.
Profit ties to the entertainment value of sports create challenges in curbing aggressive behavior.

Question 10

Why does violence occur in sports, and what are the key theories explaining it?

Answer 10

Various theories, including instinct, frustration, social learning, and institutionalization, explain violence in sports. These theories consider biological, environmental, and learned factors influencing aggressive behavior.

Question 11

How is violence in sports linked to historical notions of masculinity, and what role does institutionalization play in affirming traditional masculinity?

Answer 11

Historical masculinity ideals, emphasizing toughness, shaped the acceptance of violence in sports. The institutionalization of violence in hockey, for example, became a means to affirm manliness.

Question 12

What are the three main forms of violence that male athletes can engage in, and how are these behaviors linked to everyday dynamics and culture within male athletic groups?

Answer 12

Male athletes can engage in violence against women, other men, and their own bodies. These behaviors are linked to cultural dynamics within male athletic groups, discouraging empathy and promoting aggression.

Question 13

According to Michael Messner, what factors contribute to male athlete violence, and how is the culture within athlete peer groups related to this behavior?

Answer 13

Factors include a misogynist and homophobic culture, where insults are used to punish non-conforming members. The culture within athlete peer groups stifles empathy, encouraging disrespectful treatment.

Question 14

What does “rape culture” imply in the context of male college athletes, and how do aspects of the sports culture contribute to an environment where sexual assault is not adequately condemned?

Answer 14

Rape culture refers to an environment normalizing sexual assault. In sports, entitlement, power imbalances, and lack of accountability contribute to an atmosphere where sexual assault is not adequately condemned or prevented.

Question 15

How does the sport ethic contribute to the normalization of injuries, and what role does the metaphor of the “body as a machine” play in athletes’ attitudes toward injuries?

Answer 15

The sport ethic normalizes injuries, expecting athletes to push through pain. The metaphor of the “body as a machine” contributes to viewing injuries as malfunctions to be overcome, potentially overlooking the importance of proper care.

Question 16

violence against other men:

Answer 16

involves aggressive actions or behaviors directed towards fellow male athletes. This aggression can occur during competitions, practices, or in interpersonal interactions within the sports context.

Question 17

Violence against women:

Answer 17

o This refers to instances where male athletes engage in violent behavior specifically directed towards women. This violence can manifest in various forms, including physical aggression, verbal abuse, or other harmful actions.

Question 18

(Men) violence against their own bodies.

Answer 18

This refers to instances where male athletes engage in self-destructive behaviors or subject their own bodies to harm. This can include practices that lead to injuries, substance abuse, or other forms of self-inflicted harm.

Question 19

Concussions & CTE:

Answer 19

Brain injuries found in deceased athletes from various sports, linked to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)

Question 20

Consequences of CTE:

Answer 20

Memory loss, aggressiveness, confusion, paranoia, and depression.

Question 21

CTE and Conflict Theory:

Answer 21

Athletes viewed as instruments for profit generation, raising ethical questions about player safety and well-being.

Question 22

How does Messner’s framework contribute to understanding violence by women athletes, and what is the shift in focus regarding gender norms?

Answer 22

Messner’s framework provides a perspective on violence by women athletes, but it may not fully explain their motives. The shift emphasizes norms in the sports culture over strict adherence to gender norms, focusing on what’s seen as normal or acceptable within the sports world.

Question 23

What are the consequences of head injuries in sports, specifically concussions and CTE, and how are attitudes toward brain injuries evolving?

Answer 23

Head injuries in sports can lead to serious consequences, including memory loss, cognitive decline, mood and behavioral changes, and impaired motor skills. There’s a shifting perspective on brain injuries, recognizing their severity and questioning whether they’re individual issues or systemic problems.

Question 24

What is hazing, and how does it relate to the socialization of new athletes within a team?

Answer 24

Hazing is a ritual of initiation or a rite of passage where new athletes undergo traumatic experiences to join a team, testing their commitment. It is intertwined with socialization, shaping rookies to adopt expected behaviors and beliefs.

Question 25

How do victims justify and rationalize hazing actions, and what are the four techniques of neutralization?

Answer 25

Victims may justify hazing through normalization, perceived necessity for team unity, fear of retaliation or exclusion, and a desire for acceptance and belonging within the team. These techniques of neutralization help them rationalize enduring hazing silently.

Question 26

What are the different forms of sport crowd violence, and what factors contribute to its occurrence?

Answer 26

Sport crowd violence includes hooliganism, celebratory violence, and can be explained by frustration-aggression, conflict theory, and the concept of contested terrain. Factors contributing to violence range from specific events and crowd dynamics to historical rivalries and alcohol consumption.

Question 27

What role do crowd dynamics and situational factors play in sport crowd violence, and what are some examples?

Answer 27

Crowd dynamics, crowd size, composition, the meaning of the event, history between teams, and crowd control are critical factors influencing sport crowd violence. Examples include the impact of alcohol consumption, location of the event, motivations for attending, and the importance of teams to spectators’ identity.

Question 28

How has terrorism been used as a form of sport crowd violence, and what security concerns has it raised?

Answer 28

Terrorism at sports events, exemplified by incidents like the 1972 Summer Olympics and the Boston Marathon, has led to increased security concerns and procedures at sport venues. Consideration of global issues and heightened security measures, such as barriers, has become crucial in addressing the potential threat of terrorism.

Question 29

What measures can be taken to control crowd violence, both in minimizing violence among athletes and implementing preventative measures related to crowd dynamics?

Answer 29

To control crowd violence, measures include ensuring referees are well-trained, preventing athlete altercations from escalating, limiting alcohol consumption with specific measures, maintaining safe facilities, encouraging family attendance to minimize elevated behavior, and being aware of contextual factors that might heighten tensions, possibly leading to the cancellation or rescheduling of games.

Question 30

Aggression

Answer 30

Any behaviour intended to injure another person, psychologically or physically.

Question 31

Catharsis

Answer 31

The healthy release of aggression (often through a form of “safety valve”) that reduces the risk of further, more dangerous manifestations of violence.

Question 32

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy

Answer 32

(CTE) is a degenerative brain disease, likely caused by repetitive blows to the head, which has been detected primarily in athletes who engage in contact sports, such as boxing, football, and hockey. Athletes suffering from CTE exhibit symptoms similar to dementia, and their brain function and capacity are severely impaired.

Question 33

Frustration-aggression theory

Answer 33

The idea that individuals act aggressively in response to frustration, which can be discharged safely through a form of catharsis.

Question 34

Instinct theory

Answer 34

The idea that violence is a “natural” form of human behaviour, rooted in an innate, biological instinct to act aggressively.

Question 35

Social learning theory

Answer 35

An explanation of violence as a product of observation and interaction with others. Aggression is learned through socialization processes and cultural understandings of what is acceptable and rewarded.

Question 36

Sports-related violence

Answer 36

(SRV) is any aggressive, harmful, or unjust act carried out in the context of sport, which threatens or produces injury or damage to persons, animals, or property.

Question 37

Violence

Answer 37

A form of aggression that is intended to cause physical harm or injury.