Chapter 9 Flashcards
Learning
A relatively permanent change in an employee’s knowledge or skill that results from experience
Decision making
The process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem
Expertise
The knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices
Explicit knowledge
Knowledge that is easily communicated and available to everyone
Tacit knowledge
Knowledge that employees can only learn through experience
Contingencies of reinforcement
Four specific consequences used by organizations to modify employee behaviour
Positive reinforcement
A reinforcement contingency in which a positive outcome follows a desired behaviour
Negative reinforcement
A reinforcement contingency in which an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behaviour
Punishment
An unwanted outcome that follows an unwanted behaviour
Extinction
The removal of a positive outcome following an unwanted behaviour
Schedules of reinforcement
The timing of when contingencies are applied or removed
Continuous reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a certain behaviour
Fixed-interval schedule
A schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at fixed time periods
Variable-interval schedule
A schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at random periods of time
Fixed-ratio schedule
A schedule whereby reinforcement occurs following a fixed number of desired behaviours
Variable-ratio schedule
A schedule whereby behaviour are reinforced after a varying number of them have been exhibited
Social learning theory
Theory that argues that people in organizations learn by observing others
Behavioural Modelling
Employees observing the actions of others, learning from what they observe, and then repeating the observed behaviour
Learning Orientation
A predisposition or attitude according to which building competence is deemed more important by an employee than demonstrating competence
Performance-prove orientation
A predisposition or attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating their competence so that others think favourably of them
Performance-avoid orientation
A predisposition or attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will not think poorly of them
Programmed decisions
Decisions that are somewhat automatic because the decision maker’s knowledge allows him/her to recognize the situation and the course of action to be taken
Intuition
An emotional judgment based on quick, unconscious gut feelings
Crisis situation
A change - sudden or evolving - that results in an urgent problem that must be addressed immediately
Nonprogrammed decision
One made by employees when a problem is new, complex, or not recognized
Rational decision-making model
A step-by-step approach to making decisions that is designed to maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives
Bounded rationality
The notion that people do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives when making a decision
Satisficing
What a decision maker is doing who chooses the first acceptable alternative considered
Selective perception
The tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations
Projection bias
the faulty perception by decision makers that others think, feel and act as they do
Social identity theory
A theory that people identify themselves according to the various groups to which they belong and judge others according to the groups they associate with
stereotype
Assumptions made about others based on their social group membership
Heuristics
Simple and efficient rules of thumb that allow one to make decisions more easily
Availability bias
The tendency for people to base their judgements on information that is easier to recall
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency for people to judge others’ behaviours as being due to internal factors such as ability, motivation, or attitudes
Self-serving bias
when one attributes one’s own failures to external factors and success to internal factors
Consensus
Used by decision makers to attribute cause; whether other individuals behave the same way under similar circumstances
Distinctiveness
Used by decision makers to attribute cause; whether the person being judged acts in a similar fashion under different circumstances
Consistency
Used by decision makers to attribute cause; whether this individual has behaved this way before under similar circumstances
Escalation of commitment
A common decision-making error, in which the decision maker continues to follow a failing course of action
