Chapter 9 Flashcards
Defined as the pattern of continuity and change to human capabilities that occur throughout the course of life, involving growth and decline. Most development involves growth, although it also is concerned with decline.
Human Development
Three different levels of change.
- Physical processes
- Cognitive processes
- Socioemotional processes
Changes in an individual’s biological nature including genes inherited from parents, hormonal changes of puberty and menopause, brain changes throughout life, height, and weight, and motor skills.
Physical Processes
Changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language.
Cognitive Processes
Changes in social relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality.
Socioemotional Processes
Physical, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are what?
Inter-related and inter-dependent.
Refers to the biological changes that occur throughout life.
Maturation
Relates to different aspects of one’s physical, cognitive, and socioemotional characteristics.
Age
Is a variable that cannot be experimentally manipulated, studies on the relationship between age and other characteristics are by definition correlational in nature.
Age
Refers to an individual’s biological inheritance, especially their genes.
Nature
Refers to the person’s environment and social experiences.
Nurture
To the behaviorist, including ____ _ ______, all behavior is due to the environment.
John B Watson
(the individual’s genetic blueprint)-his or her actual genetic material.
Genotype
(the person’s observable characteristics). Shows the contributions of both nature (genetic heritage) and nurture (environment).
Phenotype
Phenotype is the outward expression of the
Genotype
We learned that the heritability of intelligence is approximately
75%
Therefore we can that ___ of intelligence is inherited and ___ is due to environmental influences.
75%
25%
The conclusion that development is the product of nature, nurture, and the
Complex interaction of the two.
The first stage in human development is the prenatal period beginning with
Conception and ending with the birth process
Occurs when a single sperm cell fertilizes the female’s ovum to produce a zygote.
Conception
A single cell with 23 chromosomes from the mother and 23 chromosomes from the father.
Zygote
What are the 3 periods that are divided into the development from zygote to fetus?
- Germinal Period
- Embryonic Period
- Fetal Period
(1-2 weeks) Begins with conception. Consisting of rapid cell growth and finally attaching itself to the wall of the uterus.
Germinal Period
(3-8 weeks) Cell differentiation intensifies and around the 8th week organs begin to develop. By the end of the 3rd week the neural tube starts to take shape. By the end the ________ ______, the heart begins to beat, the arms and legs become more differentiated, the face starts to form and the intestinal track appears.
Embryonic Period
(2 months-9 months)- At 2 months, the fetus is the size of a kidney bean and has started to move around. At 4 months, the fetus is 5 inches long and weighs about 5 ounces. At 6 months, the fetus has grown to a pound and a half. The last 3 months of pregnancy are the time when organ functioning increases and the fetus puts on considerable weight and size, adding baby fat.
Fetal Period
Are biological, chemical and physical agents that can cause birth defects.
Teratogens
Chemical agents include
Alcohol, nicotine, and other drugs.
Biological agents include
Viruses such as HIV and STIs.
Physical agents include
Physical trauma
The physical development of childhood include
reflexes, motor and perceptual skills, and the Brain
Are automatic behaviors and that are crucial for survival.
Reflexes
Common reflexes demonstrated by an infant include:
Rooting reflex
Gripping reflex
Moro or startle reflex
Galant reflex
In which the head turns in the direction of the touch, and the infant opens his/her mouth for feeding.
Rooting Reflex
The infant grasps the item and can hold on very well.
Gripping Reflex
In which the inner sole is stroked, the infant curls his/her toes upward.
Toe curling
In which the infant throws his/her head back and arms and legs out (and then cries)
Moro or Startle Reflex
In which the infant curves toward the side that was stroked and looks like a fencer when doing so.
Galant Reflex
After about 12 months, the infant becomes capable of
Sitting upright, standing, stooping, climbing, and often walking.
In the second year growth slows somewhat but other activities such as
Running and climbing increase.
Emerging between 3 and 5 months of age, the ability to reach for an object involves a wide array of processes:
Sensory capacities
Motivation
Attention
Bodily Control
Learning
Being able to see or hear the object
Sensory capacities
Wanting to grasp the object
Motivation
Being able to focus on a particular thing
Attention
Having the ability to control posture, manage head movement, and calibrate the movement of one’s arms.
Bodily Control
Getting positive reinforcement from the experience of attaining the object of their desire.
Learning
The ________ of the _______ branch out, and the _______ become far mire interconnected.
Dendrites
Neurons
Neurons
The process of building the myelin sheath begins prenatally and continues after birth well into adolescence and young adulthood.
Myelination
During childhood, _______ connections increase dramatically.
Synaptic
Is a gap between neurons that is bridged by chemical neurotransmitters.
Synapse
The connections that are made become ________ and will _______.
Stronger
Survive
The unused ones will be replaced by other _____ ________ or ________.
Neural pathways
Disappear
In the language of neuroscience, these unused connections will be “pruned.” This is often referred to as
Synaptic Pruning
Spent his career studying the cognitive development of young children.
Jean Piaget
Piaget proposed that children proceed through a series of qualitative stages of
Cognitive Development
According to Piaget, children and thus individuals learn through the process of
Assimilation and
Accommodation
Is the process of incorporating information into existing schemas
Assimilation
The process of altering our ways of thinking (_______) so that we can include new information into our accustomed way of thinking.
Accommodation
(Schemas)
Piaget’s four periods of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal
2-7 years child becomes able to think about people and objects that are not physically present.
Preoperational
1-2 years learning through senses and motor behavior; develops the concept of object permanence (recognition that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be directly sensed).
Sensorimotor
Child’s thought reflects _________ (inability to see a situation or event from another person’s point of view.)
Egocentrism
7-11 years. Even through thoughts are still limited to the immediate situation, the child is able to engage in logical reasoning through the use of mental representations. Principle of conservation develops here.
Concrete Operational
11- on Uses symbolic representation in abstract thought. Can create and logically think through hypothetical situations.
Formal
Refers to an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding.
Temperament
________ _____ and ______ ______ (1977,1996) identified 3 basic types of temperament in children.
Alexander Chess
Stella Thomas
What are the 3 basic types of temperament in children?
- Easy Children
- Difficult Children
- Slow- to-warm-up children
These children displayed a positive mood, quickness in establishing regular routines in infancy (i.e., eating, sleeping), and were easily adaptable to new experiences.
Easy Children
These children tended to react negatively and to crying frequently, engaging in irregular daily routines, and slow to accepting new experiences.
Difficult Children
These children displayed a low activity level, somewhat negative, inflexible, and displayed a low intensity to mood.
Slow-to-warm-up children
Is the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver.
Infant attachment
____ ______ (1969, 1989) theorized that the infant and the mother instinctively form an attachment.
John Bowlby
____ _______ is well known for devising the strange situation technique (1979). In this procedure, caregivers leave infants alone with a stranger and then return.
Mary Ainsworth
One classification is a ______ _________ describing infants that use the caregiver, usually the mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment.
Secure Attachment
In the strange situation, the secure infant is _____ when the mother leaves but ____ ____ and appears happy to see her when she returns.
Upset
Calms down
A second classification is an _________ _______ ______ that avoids the mother or is ambivalent toward her.
Insecurely attached infant
In the strange situation, such an infant might not even ______ that mother is gone, or conversely might respond with ______ _______, only to ____ at the mother when she returns.
Notice
Intense distress
Rage
____ _______ proposed a stage theory of personality development which he called the “Eight Stages of Man”.
Erik Erikson
For Erikson, psychosocial refers to personality development through its interaction with social environment and that there are _ ____ that the _________ will experience.
8 crises
Individual
Erikson believed that movement toward greater ________ and ______ was a lifelong process, marked by important ________ _______ in young and middle adulthood and into old age.
Competence
Maturity
developmental milestones
What are the 8 psychosocial stages of development?
- Trust vs. mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame
- Initiative vs. Guilt
- Industry vs. Inferiority
- Identity vs. Confusion
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Integrity vs. Despair
Erikson’s first psychosocial crisis (birth to 1.5 years), in which children learn through contact with their primary caregiver whether their environment can be trusted.
Trust vs. Mistrust
Erikson’s second psychosocial crisis (1.5 to 3 years), in which children develop a sense whether their behavior is under their own control or under the control of external forces.
Autonomy vs. Shame
Erikson’s third psychosocial crisis (3 to 5 years) in which children begin to evaluate the consequences of their behavior.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis (6 to puberty) in which children begin to acquire the knowledge and skills that will enable them to become productive members of society.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson’s 5 crisis (adolescence, 10-20 years) where individuals are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. Career exploration is important.
Identity vs. Confusion
Erikson’s 6 crisis (early adulthood, 20-40 years) where individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erikson’s 7th crisis (middle adulthood, 40-60 years) where the chief concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson’s 8th crisis (late adulthood, 60-till death) where individuals look back and evaluate what they have done with their lives.
Integrity vs. Despair
_____ ________ (1991,1993) describe 4 basic styles of interaction between parents and their children.
Diana Beaumrind
What are the 4 basic styles of parenting?
- Authoritarian Parenting
- Authoritative Parenting
- Neglectful Parenting
- Permissive Parenting
This is a strict punitive style. The parent firmly limits and controls the child with little verbal exchange. Children of these types of parents sometimes lack social skills, show poor initiative, and compare themselves with others.
Authoritarian Parenting
This type encourages the child to be independent but still places limits and controls on behavior. This parenting style is more collaborative. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturing toward the child.
Authoritative Parenting
This type is distinguished by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life. Children of these types of parents might develop a sense that other aspects of their parents’ lives are more important than they are. Children whose parents are like this tend to be less competent socially, to handle independence poorly and (especially) to show poor control.
Neglectful Parenting
This type involves placing few limits on the child’s behavior. These parents let the children do what he or she wants. Some parents deliberately rear their children this way because they believe that the combination of warm involvement and few limits will produce a creative, confident child. However, children with parents like this are typically rate poorly in social competence.
Permissive Parenting
Described as beginning around 10 or 12 and ending at 18 or 21 years of age. Some variations include ethnicity, culture, history, gender, socioeconomic, status, and lifestyle characterize the life path.
Adolescence
Is described as a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence.
Puberty
Is responsible for the development of genitals, increase in height, and voice change in males.
Testosterone, an androgen
Is responsible for the development of breasts, uterine and skeletal characteristics in females.
Estradiol, an estrogen
Studies have shown that boys that matured early in adolescence were
More successful and less likely to drink alcohol, than late-maturing boys.
Studies have shown that girls who are early bloomers tend to be
less outgoing and less popular, and are more likely to smoke, use drugs, become sexually active, and engage less in academic pursuits.
Involves the individual’s belief that others are preoccupied with him or her as the adolescent himself or herself is and that the individual is both unique and invincible.
Adolescent Egocentrism
Perceive others as observing them more than actually is the case.
Egocentric adolescents
According to Erikson, the challenge of adolescence is the issue or crisis (5th) of
Identity vs. Identity confusion
The kind of challenges an adolescence will face include finding out
Who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.
For those who do not successfully resolve the crisis, they suffer what Erikson called
Identity confusion
Identity confusion is expressed in one of two ways:
1) the individual either withdraws, becoming isolated from peers and family, or-
2) loses himself or herself in the crowd
Consists of the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 25 years.
Emerging adulthood
What two words characterize the emerging adult?
Experimentation
Exploration
______ ______(2006,2010) identified 5 main features of emerging adulthood.
Jeffrey Arnett
What are the 5 main features of emerging adulthood?
- Identity exploration
- Instability
- Self-focus
- A feeling of being “in between”
- Age of possibilities
Especially in love and work
Identity exploration
Residential changes and instability in love, work and education.
Instability
A great deal of autonomy in running their own lives occurs.
Self-focus
Individuals neither see themselves as adolescents nor full fledged adults.
A feeling of being “in between”
A time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their life-possibilities include optimism about their future, and emerging adulthood can provide an opportunity to guide their lives in a positive direction.
Age of Possibilities
Early adulthood last roughly __ years, from approximately age __ until __. During this period most people embark on careers, marry and have children, and become established members of society.
20
20 until 40
Middle adulthood encompasses the period from approximately age __ to age __. Many of the changes of middle adulthood are in the form of a decline; hence adjustments are made, and coping strategies are adopted.
40 to age 65.
What are some of the physical changes?
- Many people may need reading glasses related to farsightedness.
- Reduced ability to hear higher frequencies not noticeable until they begin to interfere with speech perception.
- Reduction of more than 10% in physical strength.
- Middle adulthood brings with it a change in reproductive ability.
- The reproductive changes of middle adulthood are not as dramatic or obvious in men as they are in women.
What are the 3 biological theories of aging?
- Cellular-clock theory
- Free-radical theory
- Hormonal stress theory
Leonard Hayflick’s view proposes that each species is subject to a time limit beyond which cells simply lose their capacity to replicate themselves.
Cellular-clock theory
Are a string of repetitive DNA at the tip of each chromosome in the human body. Appears to serve as a kind of timekeeping mechanism for the organism.
Telomeres
This raises the possibility that there may be a crucial minimum of _______; when the total falls below that number, disease or death comes fairly quickly.
Telomeres
Another type of cellular process that may contribute to aging relates to the body’s ability to deal with ___ ______ ______.
Free Radicals
Are molecules or atoms that possess an unpaired electron, are a normal by- product of body metabolism and also arise as a result of exposure to certain substances in foods, sunlight, X-rays, or air pollution.
Free Radicals
States that aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease.
Hormonal stress theory
Elevated stress hormones are linked to increased risks for many
Diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes.
According to _____ _______-____(2006), because of the increasing complexity of cultures in the past century, there is a greater need for reflective, more complex thinking that takes into account the changing nature of knowledge and the kinds of challenging contemporary thinkers face.
Giesela Labouvie-Vief
Intellectual skills are often thought as peaking during this period of life.
Cognition in Early Adulthood (20-40)
Some cross-sectional studies indicate that middle adulthood is a time of cognitive decline, while longitudinal studies present a different view.
Cognition in Middle Adulthood (40-60)
Based on the longitudinal research of _. ____ _____, middle adulthood is the period when many people reach their peak for a range of intellectual skills
K. Warner Schaie
The cognitive decline that began in Middle Adulthood continues into ____ _______. Speed of processing is apparent in middle-aged adults and becomes more pronounced in older adults.
Late Adulthood
(Cognition in Late Adulthood (60 and up))
Older adults also tend to do more poorly than younger adults in most aspects of ______.
Memory
May increase with age because of the buildup of life’s experiences, but individual variations characterize people throughout their lives.
Wisdom
Individuals either form intimate relationships with others or become socially isolated.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
_______(2006) has identified 4 principles at work in successful marriages.
Gottman
What are the 4 identified principles at work in successful marriages?
- Nurturing fondness and admiration
- Turning toward each other as friends
- Giving up some power
- Solving conflicts together
Refers to making a contribution to the next generation and this can be done by having children and being positively involved in their development.
Generativity
The person who has entered the later years of life is engaged in looking back- evaluating his/her life and seeking meaning.
Integrity vs. Despair
With integrity, the individual can face the later years with a strong sense of meaning and
Low fear of death
In the absence of integrity, the older adult is filled with
Despair and faith
Piaget’s concepts of ________ and __________ to adult development.
Assimilation and Accommodation
Allows the person to enjoy a feeling of meaning because experiences fit into his or her preexisting schemas.
Assimilation
The process whereby existing schemas are modified or new structures are developed. Helps us to change so that we can make sense of life’s previously incomprehensible events.
Accommodation
When we have a negative life circumstance such as an illness or loss, we have the opportunity to change
To develop and to mature
Negative events that people in middle adulthood experience include
Death and their own mortality
Involves a person’s efforts to cultivate meaningful optimal experiences.
A life theme
