Chapter 8 Flashcards
Study the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing. It is a broad field that includes:
-the study of consciousness
-memory, and
-cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive Psychologist
A label for approaches that sought to explain observable behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that cannot be observed directly.
Cognitive Psychology
3 basic processes that compare the computer to the human mind
Input, storage, and retrieval
Computers receive information that has already been ______ removing most ________.
Coded
Ambiguity
In humans, ambiguous information enters through
Sensory receptors
Computers can do some things better than ______. They can perform complex _________ ____________ much faster and more accurately.
Humans
Numerical Calculations
Computers are quite limited in their ability to
Learn, to change, and generalize.
Is the process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner.
Thinking
What forms of thinking involves the manipulation of information that is inferred from our behavior?
Images and Concepts
A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
Concepts
Which classifications are used for a concept?
Objects, relations, events, abstractions, and qualities.
What are the 4 important reasons for Concepts?
- They allow us to generalize. Concepts allow us to navigate the world by generalizing our experiences across members of a category.
- They allow us to associate experiences and objects.
- They aid memory by making it more efficient so that we do not have to reinvent the wheel each time we come across a piece of information.
- They provide clues about how to react to a particular object or experience.
Is a model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a “family resemblance” with that item’s properties.
Prototype model
What are the 4 steps in problem solving?
- Find and Frame Problems
- Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies
- Evaluate Solutions
- Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions over Time
The first step in the process is to recognize that you have a problem.
Find and Frame Problems
Once you know what the problem and clearly define it we can develop strategies to solve it.
Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies
Once we have solved a problem, an evaluation of how effective our solution is needed.
Evaluate Solutions
The final step in problem-solving is to rethink and redefine problems continually.
Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions over Time
Three effective strategies of developing good problem-solving strategies
- Sub-goals
- Algorithms
- Heuristics
Intermediate goals or intermediate problems that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution.
Sub-goals
These are strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem. Can come as formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions.
Algorithms
These are shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee a answer.
Heuristics
Are beliefs that interfere with objectivity.
Biases
Two types of biases
- Confirmation Bias
- Hindsight Bias
Is the tendency to search for an use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them. Our decisions can also become further biased because we tend to seek out and listen to people who views confirm our own while we avoid those dissenting views.
Confirmation Bias
Is our tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome; sometimes referred to as “I knew it all along effect.”
Hindsight Bias
Decision-making strategies that involve educated guesses or rules of thumb. Intuitive and efficient ways of solving problems and making decisions; they are often at work when we a decision by following a gut feeling.
Heuristics
Two types of Heuristics
- Availability Heuristic
- Representative Heuristic
This is the decision- making heuristic in which people make a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events.
Availability Heuristic
This is a decision-making heuristic in which people make judgements about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information.
Representative Heuristic
What are the 3 criteria of a good intelligence test?
- Validity
- Reliability
- Standardization
This refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. If a test says it measures intelligence, then it should measure intelligence not some other characteristic such as anxiety or socioeconomic background.
Validity
This refers to the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance.
Reliability
This involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, and the creation of norms, or performance standards, for the test.
Standardization
A French psychologist was responsible for the development of the first intelligence test.
Alfred Binet
Binet grouped test items in accordance to the age at which children generally
Passed and Failed
Binet premised that intelligence increased with age (up to about __) therefore test items were arranged according to __________ _________ with __________ ___ used as the criterion of difficulty.
16
increasing difficulty
chronological age
Refers to the intellectual level at which a child is functioning expressed in units of chronological age.
Mental age
The general mental ability by the average child of a particular chronological age (____ __ _ __)
Up to age 16
A child who passed all of the items up to and including those at the _ ____ _____ would have a mental age of _ regardless of __________ __.
mental age of 6
6
chronological age
In 1912, _______ _____, devised an index of intelligence by dividing a child’s mental age by his or her chronological age.
William Stern
He multiplied the index by ___ to _______ ________.
100
eliminate decimals
The resulting statistic is the ________ _______, calculated, as just explained, as MA/CA X 100.
Intelligence Quotient
Current intelligence tests include:
WAIS- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
WISC- Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
An important feature of intelligence test is their _________. The __________ refers to the frequencies of various scores on a scale.
Distribution
Distribution
Is a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range.
Normal distribution
Refers to a distribution of scores obtained by a large sample of people who have taken a particular psychological test.
Norms
According to____ there is more to intelligence than the verbal and mathematical abilities measured by current intelligent tests.
Howard Gardner
What are the 9 multiple intelligence’s?
- Verbal
- Mathematical
- Spatial
- Bodily-Kinesthetic
- Musical
- Interpersonal Intelligence
- Intrapersonal Intelligence
- Naturalist
- Existential
The ability to think in words and use language to express meaning. Mastery, love, and ability to use language and words (in spoken an written form) found in poets, lawyers, speakers, writers, and rap singers.
Verbal
Ability to detect patterns, think logically, reason deductively, and carry out mathematical operations. Used in solving mathematics problems and in logical thinking-for instance, in science and mathematics, especially highly advanced mathematics.
Mathematical
The ability to think three-dimensionally.Ability to represent the spatial world (both wide spaces and confined spaces); likely to be found in pilots, navigators, sculptors, architects, and championship chess players.
Spatial
Ability to use and control parts (hands, fingers, arms) or the whole body and to handle objects skillfully;found in dancers, surgeons, athletes, and craftspeople.
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Ability to hear, recognize, and manipulate patterns in music. High level of competence in composing and performing, sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone, evident in composers, singers, and musicians.
Musical
Sensitivity to people, ability to understand what motivates them and ability to recognize their intentions, understanding how to work effectively with people and how to lead and to follow; may be found in people involved in sales, teaching, counseling, or politics.
Interpersonal Intelligence
The ability to understand oneself (occupations, theologian, psychologist).
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) and sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). Values our evolutionary past as hunters, gathers, and farmers; likely to be found in roles such as botanist, chef, and landscaping.
Naturalist
Ability to pose and ponder questions about life, death, and ultimate realities.
Existential
According to____, humans are prewired biologically to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way.
Noam Chomsky
Chromsky and many other language experts believe that the strongest evidence for _______ ________ _____ is the fact that children all over the world reach language milestones at the same time and in about the same order.
Languages Biological Basis
A specialized area in the left frontal lobe, on the surface of the brain near the bottom of the motor control area is _____ ____ (______ ____), which controls the muscles that produce speech.
Broca’s Area (Output Area)
Is found at the top of the left temporal lobe near its junction with the parietal lobe.This area is responsible for the thinking and interpreting aspect of language production.
Wernicke’s Area (Input Area)
Behaviorists opposed ____________ hypothesis and argued that language represents nothing more than chains of responses acquired through reinforcement.
Chromsky’s
Children appear to be neither exclusively __________ programmed _______ nor exclusively _______ driven _________ experts.
biologically
linguists
socially
language
Refers to a person’s interpretation of a situation. Includes whether the event is viewed as harmful and threatening, or challenging and a person’s determination of whether he or she has the resources to cope effectively with the events.
Cognitive Appraisal
Is essentially a kind of problem solving. Refers to managing demanding circumstances, expending effort to solve life’s problems, and seeking to master or reduce stress.
Coping
According to _______ _______, cognitive appraisal involves two steps.
Richard Lazarus
What are the two steps to cognitive appraisal?
- Primary appraisal
- Secondary appraisal
Individuals first interpret whether an event is harmful, is a threat of some future danger, or a challenge to be overcome.
Primary appraisal
Individuals evaluate their resources and determine how effectively they can be used to cope with the event.
Secondary appraisal
