Chapter 8 Remembering and Judging Flashcards
What type of memories do we consciously try to remember and recall
explicit memories
The influence of experience on behaviour, even if the individual is not aware of those
influences
implicit memories
episodic memory
information about events we have personally experienced
remembering _______ is a good example of semantic memory
what the word chocolate means
A ___________ is a measure of explicit memory that involves bringing information
from memory that has previously been remembered
recall memory test
which type of memory is tested on a multiple-choice test
recognition
What is the measure of memory that assesses how much more quickly information is
processed or learned when it is studied again after it has already been learned but then
forgotten
relearning
What is procedural memory
type of implicit memory that stores information about how to do things
your changes in behaviour as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or
recently is best known as
priming
Information is held very briefly (less than a second) in this stage of memory
sensory memory
If our brain determines that information is important enough to grab our attention
then it will move into _______
short term memory
____ are the processes that we use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store
information in short-term memory
working memory
Which of the following is the correct order for how information remains available to
us (i.e., the stages of memory)
sensory memory –> short-term memory –> long-term memory
The process of organizing information into smaller groupings, thereby increasing the
number of items that can be held in short-term memory is best known as
chunking
The fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over
periods of time than it is when it occurs closer together or at the same timeThe
processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over time is known as
spacing effect
overlearning
Continual practice and study even when it is thought that the material has
been mastered
You have two weeks until your next exam. Which of the following is the best way to
plan your study time to maximize the amount you remember
studying one hour every other day for 10 days before the exam
The failure to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the
feeling that retrieval is imminent is known by psychologists as the _____________
effect
tip of the tongue
Why does someone who learns information in a bad mood recall more information
when they are in a bad mood
because of state-dependent learning
When given a list of words to remember, Ryley finds that he has a tendency to better
remember stimuli that are presented early in a list. What is the best name for this
effect?
primacy effect
This type of interference occurs when learning something new impairs our ability to
retrieve information that was learned earlier
retroactive interference
This type of interference occurs when earlier learning impairs our ability to encode
information that we try to learn later
proactive learning
prototypical example of a category
robins and sparrows for the category of birds
What is the term for patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help us organize
information
schemas
Which part of my brain is probably damaged if I am unable to recognize basic objects
around my house
hippocampus
Bryson remembers nothing before his concussion happened, meaning he has
________ amnesia. If he were unable to learn new things, he would have ________
amnesia
retrograde and anterograde
Looking for evidence to back up the way you already feel about something is an
example of
confirmation bias
When people’s schemas prevent them from using an object in new and nontraditional
ways
functional fixedness
Errors in memory that occur when new information influences existing memories is
called
misinformation effect
Olivia predicts that she would will be very nervous during a class presentation and is
certain that she will faint. What is this an example of
overconfidence
Paul flips a coin 5 times, and “heads” occurs each time. He then predicts that “tails”
will be next. What is this an example of?
representative heuristic
Melissa is stuck in traffic and says to her friend that “traffic is the worst in my area!”
What is this an example of
availability heuristic
John, a talented sprinter, finished second in the race by a fraction of a second. He kept
thinking about what could have happened if he had trained a bit harder or if he hadn’t
stumbled at the start. What type of thinking is John engaging in
counterfactual
According to eyewitness testimony research, which of the following increases the
likelihood of identification errors
when eye-witnesses are asked to identify a perpetrator from a race other than their own
A(n) _________ memory is a memory of an event that never actually occurred. It is
implanted by experimental manipulation or other means
false
memory
the ability to store and retrieve information over time
cognition
the process of acquiring and using knowledge
hyperthymesia
people able to remember an abnormally large amount of their life experiences in vivid detail
false memory studies suggest
once false memories are implanted its difficult to tell them apart form true ones
3 categories of memory processes
encoding
storage
retrieval
semantic memory
knowledge of facts and concepts about the world
recall task
examine ability to pull information from your memory without aids
recognition task
examine ability to recognize previously learned information from choices
relearning task
assesses how much quicker information is processes when learned again after being forgotten
classical conditioning
learning often without effort or awareness to associate neutral stimuli with another stimulus
2 types of sensory memory
iconic and echoic
simple memory
brief storage of sensory information
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
lasts about 1/4s
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
lasts about 4s
short term memory
small amounts of information that is temporarily kept for a few seconds to a minute
central executive
part of working memory that directs attention and processing
working memory
what processes, makes sense of, modifies, interprets, and stores information in the STM
maintenance rehersal
process of repeating information mentally or out loud
long term memory
memory storage that can hold information for days, months or years
to be successful in keeping things in LTM
they must be encoded, stored, and retrieved
elaborate encoding
process new information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful
example of elaborate encoding
looking at Freud and imagining him as a child because he studied childhood experiences
forgetting curve
information we have learned drops off rapidly with time
state dependent learning
superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same psychological state as during the encoding
context dependent learning
match in the external situation between learning and remembering
example of context dependent learning
studying for a test in a student lounge instead of at home because students will be around you making noise
example of state dependent learning
studying while caffeinated means you should be caffeinated while taking an exam for better results
serial position curve
people are able to retrieve more words presented at the beginning or end of a list than words in the middle
primacy effect
better at remembering stimuli presented early in a list
recency effect
better at remembering stimuli presented later in a list
retroactive interference
learning something new impairs ability to retrieve info learned earlier
retroactive interference example
learning a new phone # making it harder to remember the old one
proactive inference
when earlier learning impairs ability to encode information that we try to learn later
proactive inference example
your old PIN # makes it hard to remember your new one
spreading activation
activation of one element of a category in the LTM activates other associated elements
category prototype
member of the category that is most average or typical
category prototype example
when asked to think or a bird you think of a robin before an ostrich
example of a schema
-being respectful in public
-shaking someone’s hand
-seeing elderly people as fragile and needing extra care
long term potentiation
strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation
consolidation
period of time which LTP occurs and in which memories are stored
glutamate
neurotransmitter and amino acid (glutamic acid) most important in memory
hippocampus
helps encode information about spatial relationships and the context in which events were experienced and the associations among memories
cerbellum
responsible for implicit memories
amygdala
handles emotional memories mostly those involved with fear
amnesia
memory disorder that involves the inability to remember information
retrograde amnesia
more severe for memories that occurred just before trauma
involved with long-term potential and consolidation process
anterograde amnesia
inability to transfer information from short-term memory into long-term memory
problems forming new memories
cognitive processes and memory
cognitive processes play a significant role in memory such as attention, rehearsal, and organization of memory
cognitive biases
errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate use of cognitive processes
source monitoring
ability to accurately identify the source of the memory
example of source monitoring
recalling a childhood memory of seeing a friendly dog on the street but being uncertain if it was real or a vivid dream
sleeper effect
attitude change that occurs over time when we forget the source of the information
example of the sleeper effect
on Instagram you see a crazy story that you believed until you see that its from a fake news site
confirmation bias
tendency to verify and confirm existing memories rather then challenge or disconfirm them
experiment done by Loftus and Palmer in 1974
showed 3 groups a video of a car crash and then asked them each how fast the cars were going when they hit, smashed, and contacted each other
overconfidence
tendency for people to be too certain about their ability to accurately remember events and to make judgments
flashbulb memory
vivid or emotional memory of an unusual event that people believe they remember very well
heuristics
information processing strategies that are useful in many cases but may lead to errors when misapplied
representativeness heuristics
base our judgments on information that seems to represent or match what we expect to happen while ignoring other relevant information
example of representativeness heuristics
because someone is wearing a suit and tie and holding a briefcase they may be a lawyer
availability huristics
the tendency to make judgements of the frequency or likelihood that an event occurs on the basis of the ease with which it can be retrieved from memory
availability heuristics example
hearing about a plane crash on the news and deciding not to get on your plane ride home form Mexico
salience
information which is attention-grabbing is more likely o be noticed and remembered
example of salience
deciding whether to get an apple or android. google says android is better with camera and battery but your friend says apple is better so you get an apple
cognitive accessibility
extent to which knowledge is activated in memory and thus is likely to be used in cognition and behaviour
example of cognitive accessibility
deciding whether to go to NYC or Calgary on your trip. You have heard lots about NYC and not lots about Calgary so you decide to go to NYC without do research on the other place
counterfactual thinking
tendency to think about and experience events according to what might have been
example of counterfactual thinking
being sad after getting silver because you could have gotten gold
self reference effect
material is better remembered if it is linked to thoughts about ourselves
self reference effect example
remembering the word ambitious when describing it according to you then just reading the definition
forgetting curve example
studying and remembering 90% of material and a month later only remembering 10%
confirmation bias example
if someone believes all politicians are dishonest and only seek out information that supports this belief
example of functional fixedness
seeing a chair only as a seat and not a stool used to reach high shelves
misinformation effect example
after a car accident is someone says you crashed you will think its worse then if you said you bumped
overconfidence example
feeling confident you remember everyone name at a party but when you get there you realize you have forgotten most of them
