Chapter 8 Key Terms

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

A relatively permanent change in an employee’s knowledge or skill that results from experience.

Question 2

Decision making

Answer 2

The process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem

Question 3

Expertise

Answer 3

The knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices

Question 4

Explicit knowledge

Answer 4

Knowledge that is easily communicated and available to everyone

Question 5

Tacit knowledge

Answer 5

Knowledge that employees can learn only through experience

Question 6

Contingencies of reinforcement

Answer 6

Four specific consequences used by organizations to modify employee behaviors

Question 7

Positive reinforcement

Answer 7

When a positive outcome follows a desired behavior

Question 8

Negative reinforcement

Answer 8

An unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior

Question 9

Punishment

Answer 9

When an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior

Question 10

Extinction

Answer 10

The removal of a positive outcome following an unwanted behavior

Question 11

Schedules of reinforcement

Answer 11

The timing of when contingencies are applied or removed

Question 12

Continuous reinforcement

Answer 12

A specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a certain behavior

Question 13

Fixed interval schedule

Answer 13

Reinforcement occurs at fixed time periods

Question 14

Variable interval schedule

Answer 14

Reinforcement occurs at random periods of time

Question 15

Fixed ratio schedule

Answer 15

Reinforcement occurs following a fixed number of desired behaviors

Question 16

Variable ratio schedule

Answer 16

Behaviors are reinforced after a varying number of them have been exhibited

Question 17

Social learning theory

Answer 17

Theory that argues that people in organizations learn by observing others

Question 18

Behavioral modeling

Answer 18

When employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat the observed behavior.

Question 19

Learning orientation

Answer 19

A predisposition or attitude according to which building competence is deemed more important by an employee than demonstrating competence.

Question 20

Performance-prove orientation

Answer 20

A predisposition or attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating their competence so that others think favorably of them

Question 21

Performance-avoid orientation

Answer 21

A predisposition or attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will not think poorly of them

Question 22

Programmed decisions

Answer 22

Decisions that are somewhat automatic because people’s knowledge allows them to recognize the situation and the course of action to be taken

Question 23

Intuition

Answer 23

An emotional judgement based on quick, unconscious, gut feelings

Question 24

Crisis Situation

Answer 24

A change, sudden or evolving, that results in an urgent problem that must be addressed immediately.

Question 25

Non-programmed decisions

Answer 25

Decisions made by employees when a problem is new, complex, or not recognized

Question 26

Rational decision-making model

Answer 26

A step-by-step approach to making decisions that is designed to maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives

Question 27

Bounded rationality

Answer 27

The notion that people do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives when making a decision.

Question 28

Satisficing

Answer 28

When a decision maker chooses the first acceptable alternative considered

Question 29

Selective perception

Answer 29

The tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations.

Question 30

Projection bias

Answer 30

The faulty perception by decision-makers that others think, feel, and act the same way as they do.

Question 31

Social identity theory

Answer 31

A theory that people identify themselves based on the various groups to which they belong and judge others based on the groups they associate with.

Question 32

Stereotypes

Answer 32

Assumptions made about others based on their social group memberships

Question 33

Heuristics

Answer 33

Simple and efficient rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily

Question 34

Availability bias

Answer 34

The tendency for people to base their judgements on information that is easier to recall

Question 35

Fundamental attribution error

Answer 35

The tendency for people to judge others’ behaviors as being due to internal factors such as ability, motivation, or attitudes

Question 36

Self-serving bias

Answer 36

When we attribute our own failures to external factors and success to internal factors

Question 37

Consensus

Answer 37

Used by decision makers to attribute cause; whether other individuals behave the same way under similar circumstances.

Question 38

Distinctiveness

Answer 38

Used by decision makers to attribute cause; whether the person being judged acts in a similar fashion under different circumstances

Question 39

Consistency

Answer 39

Used by decision makers to attribute cause; whether this individual has behaved this way before under similar circumstances

Question 40

Escalation of commitment

Answer 40

A common decision-making error in which the decision maker continues to follow a failing course of action

Question 41

Training

Answer 41

A systematic effort by organizations to facilitate the learning of job-related knowledge and behavior

Question 42

Knowledge transfer

Answer 42

The exchange of knowledge between employees

Question 43

Behavior modeling training

Answer 43

A formalized method of training in which employees observe and learn from employees with significant amounts of tacit knowledge

Question 44

Communities of practice

Answer 44

Groups of employees who learn from one another through collaboration over an extended period of time

Question 45

Transfer of training

Answer 45

Occurs when employees retain and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and behaviors required for their job after training ends

Question 46

Climate for transfer

Answer 46

An organizational environment that supports the use of new skills