Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 Flashcards
Muscles
Structures that produce movement of body parts.
There are approximately 700 muscles.
Muscular system
Body system that consists of skeletal muscles, tendons, and other structures. the functions fo the muscular system are to help maintain body position and produce movement of the bony framework of the body.
AKA musculoskeletal system
Temporalis muscle
Muscle of the side of the head that moves the mandible upward and backward.
Deltoid muscle
Muscle of the shoulder that raises the arm and moves the arm away from the body (abduction)
Intercostal muscles
Muscles between the ribs that work in pairs to spread the ribs apart during inspiration and pull the ribs together during forced expiration, coughing, or sneezing.
Latissimus Dorsi muscle
Muscle of the back that moves the arm posteriorly and me daily toward the vertebral column (adduction)
Pectoralis major muscle
Muscle of the chest that moves the arm anteriorly and me daily across the chest (adduction)
Trapezius muscle
Muscle of the shoulder that raises the shoulder, pulls the shoulder blades together, and elevates the clavicle. It turns the head from side to side (rotation) and moves the head posteriorly (extension).
Biceps brachii muscle
Muscle of the anterior upper arm that bends the upper arm toward the shoulder (flexion) and bends the lower arm toward the upper arm (flexion). The origin of this muscle has two heads or (bi-; -ceps)
Brachioradialis muscle
Muscle of the anterior lower arm that bends the lower arm toward the upper arm.
Thenar muscles
Group of muscles in the palm side of the hand that bends the thumb and moves it toward the palm.
Triceps brachii muscle
Muscle of the posterior upper arm that straightens the lower arm. The origin of this muscle has three heads.
External abdominal oblique muscle
Muscle of the side of the abdomen that bends the upper body forward, rotates the side of the body medically, and compresses the side of the abdominal wall.
The internal abdominal oblique muscle lies directly beneath it and performs the same movements, but its muscle fibers are oriented in the opposite direction.
Rectum abdominis muscle
Muscle of the anterior abdomen that bends the upper body forward and compresses the anterior abdominal wall
Biceps femoris muscle
Muscle of the posterior upper leg that moves the upper leg posteriorly and bends the lower leg toward the buttocks.
The origin of this muscle has two heads.
Gastrocnemius muscle
Muscle of the posterior lower leg that bends the floor downward.
Gluteus maximus muscle
Muscle of the buttock that moves the upper leg posteriorly and rotates it laterally.
Hamstrings
Collective name for three muscles in the posterior upper leg: biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus muscles.
Peroneus longus muscle
Muscle of the lateral lower leg that raises the lateral edge of the foot and bends the foot downward
Quadriceps femoris
Collective name for four muscles in the anterior and lateral upper leg: Rectus femoris, vastus lateral is, vastus inter mediums, and vastus medial is muscles.
the origins of some of these muscles are on the femur bone. The tendons of the four heads of these muscles join together and insert on the tibia.
Rectus femoris muscle
Muscle of the anterior upper leg that bends the upper leg toward the abdomen and straightens the lower leg.
Sartorius muscle
Muscle of the anterior upper leg that bends the upper leg toward the abdomen and rotates it laterally.
Semitendinosus muscle
Muscle of the posterior upper leg that moves the upper leg posteriorly, bends the lower leg toward the buttocks, and rotates the leg medically.
The semimembranosus muscle has the same action.
Tibialis anterior muscle
Muscle of the anterior lower leg that bends the floor toward the leg.
Vastus lateral is muscle
Muscle of the lateral upper leg that bends the upper leg toward the abdomen and straightens the lower leg.
The vastus medial is muscle on the medial upper leg has the same action.
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter that initiates a muscle contraction by changing the permeability of the muscle fibers.
Contraction
Shortening of the length of all the muscle fibers within a muscle and of the muscle itself as thin strands of actin slide between thick strands of myosin
Fascicle
Structures within a muscle that are individually wrapped in fascia. Each fascicle contains bundles of individual muscle fibers
Muscle
Structure that contains several muscle fascicles
Muscle fiber
One one muscle cell. Each muscle fiber is composed of myofibrils.
Muscle hypertrophy
An increase in the size of a muscle
Myofibril
Structure within a muscle fiber that contains thin strands of the protein actin and thick strands of the protein myosin that give a characteristic striated appearance under a microscope.
Neuromuscular junction
Area on a muscle fiber where a single nerve cell is connected to it.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messenger between nerves and muscle cells
Atrophy
Loss of muscle bulk in one or more muscles. It is caused by a lack of use, by paralysis in which the muscle receive no electrical impulses from the nerves, by a lack of a muscle protein in muscular dystrophy, or by severe malnutrition.
Avulsion
Condition in which the muscle tears away from the tendon or the tendon tears away from the bone.
Compartment syndrome
Severe blunt or crushing injury causes bleeding in the muscles of the arm or leg. The fascia acts as a compartment, holding in the accumulation blood.
Contracture
Condition in which a muscle becomes progressively more flexed. As it continues to receive nerve impulses, it finally become flexed in an immovable position.
Fibromyalgia
Pain located at specific trigger points in the muscles of the neck, back, or hips. The trigger points are hyper irritable, hypersensitive areas that are tender and cause musculoskeletal pain when touched.
Hyperextension-hyperflexion injury
Injury that occurs during a car accident as a person’s head snaps backward and then forward in response to the car’s changing speed. This causes a muscle strain or muscle tear, as well as damage to the nerves.
AKA acceleration-deceleration injury Or Whiplash
Muscle contusion
Condition in which blunt trauma causes bleeding in the muscle.
AKA bruise
Muscle spasm
Painful but temporary condition with a sudden, severe, involuntary contraction of a muscle, often in the legs. It can be brought on by overexercise.
AKA muscle cramp.
Torticollis
Painful spasm of the muscles on one side of the neck
AKA Wryneck
Muscle strain
Overstretching or tearing of a muscle or its tendon, often due to physical overexertion.
Causes inflammation, pain, swelling, and bruising as capillaries in the muscle are torn.
AKA pulled muscle
Muscular dystrophy (MD)
A group of muscle diseases caused by a genetic mutation of the gene that normally makes the muscle protein dystrophin.
Without dystrophin, the muscles weaken and then atrophy.
Myalgia
Pain in a muscle due to injury or muscle disease.
Polymyalgia is pain in several muscle groups.
Myasthenia Travis
Autoimmune disorder in which the body produces antibodies against its own acetylcholine receptors on the muscle fibers, and the antibodies destroy many of the receptors.
Myopathy
Category that includes many different diseases of the muscles
Myositis
Inflammation of a muscle with localized swelling and tenderness. It can be caused by injury or strain.
Polymyositis is a chronic, progressive disease that causes widespread inflammation of muscles with weakness and fatigue.
Dermatomyositis
Causes a skin rash as well as muscle weakness and inflamation.
Repetitive strain injury (RSI)
Condition affecting the muscles, tendons, and sometimes the nerves. It occurs because of repetitive movements over an extended period of time.
AKA Cumulative trauma disorder (CTD)
Rhabdomyoma
Benign tumor in a muscle
Rhabdomyosarcoma
Cancerous tumor in a muscle This cancer usually occurs in children and young adults. A sarcoma is always a cancerous tumor.
Rotator cuff tear
Tear in the rotator muscles of the shoulder that surround the head of the humerus. These muscles help to abduct the arm. The tear can be caused by acute trauma or repetitive overuse, particularly motions in which the arm is above the head.
Ataxia
In coordination of the muscles during movement, particularly in coordination of the gait. It is caused by a disease of the brain or spinal cord, cerebral palsy, or an adverse reaction to a drug.
Bradykinesia
Abnormally slow muscle movements or a decrease in the number of spontaneous muscle movements. It is usually associated with Parkinson’s disease, a neurologic disease of the brain.
Dyskinesia
Abnormal motions that occur because of difficulty controlling the voluntary muscles.
Attempts at movement become tics,muscle spasm, muscle jerking (myoclonus), or slow, wandering, purposeless writhing of the hand in which some muscles of the fingers are flexed and others are extended.
Hyperkinesis
An abnormally increased amount of muscle movements. Restlessness. It can be a side effect of a drug.
Restless legs syndrome (RLS)
An uncomfortable restlessness and twitching of the muscles of the legs, particularly the calf muscles, along with an indescribable tingling, aching, or crawling-insect sensation.
usually occurs at night and can interfere with sleep.
Tremor
Small, involuntary, sometimes jerky, back-and-forth movements of the hands, head, jaw, or extremities. These are continuous and cannot be controlled by the patient and are usually due to essential familial tremor, an inherited condition.
Bursitis
Inflammation of the burial sac because of repetitive muscle contractions or pressure on the bone underneath the bursa.
Dupuytren Contracture
Disease in which collagen fibers in the fascia in the palm of the hand become progressively thickened and shortened. This causes a contracture and flexion deformity of the finger. Cause is unknown
Epicondylitis
Inflammation and pain of muscles and their tendons that originate on an epicondyle, a rounded protrusion of bone on each side (lateral and medial) of the distal humerus.
Lateral epicondylitis
Involves the muscles of the forearm where their tendons originate on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. It is an overuse injury caused by repeated extension and pronation fo the wrist.
AKA tennis elbow
Medial epiconylitis
Involves the muscles of the forearm where their tendons originate on the medial epicondyle of the humerus. This is an overuse injury caused by repeated flexing of the wrist while the fingers tightly grasp an object.
AKA golfer’s elbow or pitchers elbow
Fasciitis
Inflammation of the fascia around a muscle. Plantar fasciitis is inflammation of the fascia on the bottom of the foot that is caused by excessive running or exercise. There is aching or tabbing pain around the heel.
Ganglion
Semisolid fluid-containing cyst that develops on a tendon often in the wrist, had, or foot. A ganglion is a rounded lump under the skin that may or may not be painful.
Shin splints
Pain and inflammation of the tendons of the flexor muscles of the anterior lower leg over the tibia. It is an overuse injury common to athletes who run.
Tendinitis
Inflammation of any tendon from injury or overuse.
Tenosynovitis
Inflammation and pain due to overuse of a tendon and inability of the synovial to produce enough lubricating fluid.
Acetylcholine receptor antibody test
Test that detects antibodies that the body produces against its own acetylcholine receptors. Used to diagnose myasthenia gravis.
Creatine Phosphokinase (CPK-MM)
Test that measures the level of serum CPK-MM an isoenzyme found in the muscles. A high blood level of CPK-MM is present in various diseases, particularly muscular dystrophy, in which muscle tissue is being destroyed.
Edrophonium test
Procedure in which the drug edrophonium is given to confirm a diagnosis of myasthenia gravis.
The drug temporarily increases the amount of acetylcholine that is available to stimulate the fewer number of acetylcholine receptors that are characteristic of myasthenia gravis.
Electomyography (EMG)
Procedure to diagnose muscle disease or nerve damage. A needle electrode inserted into a muscle records electrical activity as the muscle contracts and relaxes.
Braces and adaptive devices
A brace is an othropedic device that supports and straightens a body part and keeps it in anatomical alignment while still permitting movement.
AKA orthosis.
ADLs
Activities of daily living
Deep tendon reflexes (DTRs)
Procedure that tests whether the muscular-nervous pathway is functioning normally. Tapping briskly on the tendon should cause an involuntary, automatic contraction of the muscle connected to that tendon.
Muscle strength test
Procedure used to test the motor strength of certain muscle groups.
For muscles in the legs and feet, the physician presses agains the lower leg or foot and SES the patient to extend the leg or Doris flex the foot upward. Etc.
Rehabilitation exercises
Physical therapy that includes exercises to increase muscle strength and improve coordination and balance. It is prescribed as part of a rehabilitation plan.
ROM
Range-of-motion
RICE treatment for minor injuries
Standard advice given by physicians and sports trainers for treating muscle sprains and soft tissue injuries to prevent further injury and selling: Rest the injured part Ice applied to the injured part Compression bandage on the injured part Elevate the injured part
Trigger point injections
Procedure to treat fibromyalgia. A coal anesthetic drug and a corticosteroid drug are injected into each fibromyalgia trigger point to relieve pain and decrease inflammation.
Analgesic drug
Treats mild-to-moderate inflammation and pain (over-the-counter drug). Used to treat minor injuries, muscle strains, tendinitis, bursitis, and muscle overuse.
Prescription narcotic analgesic drugs are used to treat chronic, severe pain.
Beta-blocker drug
Blocks the action of epinephrine to suppress essential familial tremor
Corticosteroid drug
Decreases severe inflammation. Given orally or injected into the muscle or fascia.
Dopamine stimulant drug
Stimulates dopamine receptors to treat restless legs syndrome
Drugs for fibromyalgia
Relieve pain (oral analgesic drug); relax muscles (oral muscle relaxant drug); affect calcium channels in skeletal muscle; relieve trigger point pain.
Drug for myasthenia gravis
Inhibits the enzyme that normally breaks down acetylcholine.
Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)
Decreases mild-to-moderate inflammation and pain. Used to treat minor injuries, muscle strains, tendinitis, bursitis, and muscle overuse.
Fascia to my
Procedure to partially or totally remove the fascia that is causing dupuytren contracture.
Fasciotomy
Procedure to cut the fascia and release pressure from built-up blood and tissue fluid in a patient with compartment syndrome.
Ganglionectomy
Procedure to remove a ganglion from a tendon
Muscle biopsy
Procedure to diagnose muscle weakness that could be caused by many different muscular diseases.
An incision is made in the muscle and a piece of tissue is removed and sent to the pathology department for examination under a microscope.
Myorrhaphy
Procedure to suture together a torn muscle after an injury
Tenorrhaphy
Procedure to suture together a torn tendon after an injury
Thymectomy
Procedure to remove the thymus gland. It is used to treat patients with myasthenia gravis because, after a thymectomy, the patient produces fewer antibodies against the remaining acetylcholine receptors.
ADA
Americans with Disabilities Act
ADLs
Activities of daily living
CPK-MM
Creatine phosphokinase-MM
DTRs
Deep tendon reflexes
EMG
Electro to gram; electomyography
IM
Intramuscular
LLE
Left Lower Extremity
LUE
Left Upper Extremity
MD
Muscular dystrophy
NSAID
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
Ortho
Othropedics (short form)
OSHA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OT
Occupational therapist; occupational therapy
PM&R
Physical medicine and rehabilitation
PT
Physical therapist; physical therapy
rehab
Rehabilitation (short form)
RICE
Rest, Ice, Compression, and Elevation
RLE
Right Lower Extremity
ROM
Range of Motion
RSI
Repetitive strain injury
RUE
Right Upper Extremity
Autonomic Nervous System
Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the contractions of involuntary muscles. It includes the divisions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord
Nerve
Bundle of individual neurons
Nervous system
Body system that consists of the brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves, and spinal nerves. It includes the central nervous system as well as the peripheral nervous system and its further divisions.
The nervous system’s structures are to receive and process sensory information and send motor commands.
Neural tissue
Specialized tissue of the nervous system that can conduct electrical impulses. The two type are neurons and neuroglia
Neuron
An individual nerve cell, which is the functional unit of the nervous system.
Parasympathetic nervous system
Division of the autonomic nervous system. It is active when the body is sleeping, resting, eating, or doing light activities. It’s neurotransmitter is acetylcholine.
Peripheral nervous system
Division of the nervous system that consists of the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves. It is divided into the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
Somatic nervous system
Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Sympathetic nervous system
Division of the autonomic nervous system. It works when the body is active or exercising. It’s neurotransmitter is norepinephrine.
During danger or stress (“fight or flight”), it stimulates the adrenal gland to release the hormone epinephrine into the blood.
Arachnoid
Thin, middle layer of the meninges. It is a spiderweb-like network of fibers that goes into the subarachnoid space and connects the arachnoid to the pia mater layer.
Auditory cortex
Area in the temporal lobe that analyzes sensory information from receptions in the cochlea for the sense of hearing.
Brain
Largest part of the central nervous system. It is located in the cranial cavity.
Brainstem
Column of tissue from the center of the brain to the spinal cord. It consists of three parts: the midbrain, pons, and medulla, oblong at a.
Cerebellum
Smaller, separate, rounded structure of the brain that is inferior and posterior to the cerebrum.
It helps maintain balance and adjusts intricate muscle movements.
Cerebral Cortex
The outermost layer of the cerebrum. It consists of gray matter that contains the cell bodies of neurons.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Clear fluid that is produced by the spends all cells that line the ventricles in the brain and the central canal within the spinal cord.
CSF circulates through the ventricles, flows through the spinal canal, and returns to the brain and the subarachnoid space in the meninges where it is absorbed into the blood of large veins nearby.
Cerebrum
The largest and most visible part of the brain. It’s surface contains gyro and sulci, and it is divided into four lobes and two hemispheres.
Corpus Callosum
Connecting band of nerve fibers between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum that allows them to communicate and coordinate their activities.
Cranial cavity
Hollow cavity inside the bony cranium that contains the brain.
Corpus Callosum
Connecting band of nerve fibers between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum that allows them to communicate and coordinate their activities.
Cranial cavity
Hollow cavity inside the bony cranium that contains the brain.
Dura Mater
Tough, outermost layer of the meninges. The dura mater lies just beneath the bones of the cranium and within the foramen of each vertebra.
Ependymal Cells
Cells that line the ventricles of the cerebrum and the narrow central canal in the spinal cord and produce cerebrospinal fluid.
Fissure
Deep division that runs in an anterior-to-posterior direction through the superior surface of the cerebrum and divides it into right and left hemispheres.
Frontal Lobe
Lobe of the cerebrum next to the frontal bone of the craniums
It originates conscious thought and intelligence and predicts future events and consequences. It exerts conscious control over the skeletal muscles.
Gray matter
Tissue of the cerebral cortex that contains the cell bodies of neurons.
Gustatory cortex
Area in the frontal lobe that receives and analyzes sensory information from taste receptors in the tongue for the sense of taste.
Gyrus
One of the many elevated foods on the surface of the cerebrum.
Hemisphere
One-half of the cerebrum. The right hemisphere recognizes faces, patterns, three-dimensional structures, and the emotional content of words.
The left hemisphere deals with recalling memories and is active in speaking, writing, language, reasoning, problem solving, science, and mathematics.
Hypothalamus
Structure in the cerebrum just below the thalamus. It coordinates the activities of the pons and medulla oblong at a.
It controls body temperature and sensations of hunger and thirst, controls emotions and bodily responses to emotions.
Hypothalamus contains the feeding center and satiety center.
Lobe
Large area of the cerebrum. Each lobe is named for the bone of the cranium that is next to it: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe.
Medulla oblongata
Most inferior part of the brainstem that connects to the spinal cord.
It contains the respiratory centers that control the respiratory rate and other centers that control the heart rate.
Meninges
Three separate membranes that surround and protect the entire brain and spinal cord. The meninges include the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.
Midbrain
Most superior part of the brainstem. It keeps the mind conscious and coordinates reflex responses. It contains the substantial nigra.
Occipital Lobe
Lobe of the cerebrum next to the occipital bone of the cranium. It receives and analyzes sensory information from the eyes.
It contains the visual cortex for the sense of sight.
Olfactory cortex
Area in the temporal lobe of the cerebrum that analyzes sensory information from receptors in the nose for the sense of smell.
Parietal lobe
Lobe of the cerebrum next to the parietal bone of the cranium. It receives and analyzes sensory information about touch, temperature, vibration, and pain from the skin, joints, and muscles.
It contains the somatosensory area.
Pia Mater
Thin, delicate, innermost layer of the meninges. It covers the surface of the brain and contains many small blood vessels.
Pons
Middle part of the brainstem. It relays nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the brain.
Somatosensory area
Area of the parietal lobe that receives and analyzes sensory information (touch, temperature, vibration, and pain) from receptors in the skin, joints, and muscles.
Speech center
Area in the frontal lobe that coordinates muscles of the mouth, lips, tongue, pharynx, and larynx to produce speech.
Subarachnoid space
Space beneath the arachnoid layer of the meninges. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Substantial nigra
Gray-to-black pigmented area in the midbrain of the brainstem that produces the neurotransmitter dopamine.
Sulcus
One of many grooves on the surface of the cerebrum.
Temporal lobe
Lobe of the cerebrum next to the temporal bone of the cranium. It receives and analyzes sensory information about hearing and smells.
It contains the auditory cortex for the sense of hearing and the olfactory cortex for the sense of smell.
Thalamus
Area in the center of the cerebrum that forms the walls of the third ventricle.
It acts as a relay station, receiving sensory information from the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves and sending it to the midbrain and cerebrum.
Ventricle
One of four interconnected cavities in the brain that contains cerebrospinal fluid.
The two lateral ventricles are in the right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum.
Visual cortex
Area in the occipital lobe that receives and analyzes sensory information from the retina of each eye for the sense of sight.
White matter
Tissue layer beneath the gray matter of the cerebral cortex. It contains the axons of neurons, and the myelin around the axons gives the tissue its white color.
Cauda equina
Group of nerve roots that begin where the spinal cord ends and continue inferiorly within the spinal canal. They look like the tail.
Central Canal
Narrow passageway within the spinal cord. It is lined with ependymal cells.
Ependymal Cells
Cells that line the ventricles of the cerebrum and the narrow central canal in the spinal cord and produce cerebrospinal fluid.
Epidural space
Area between the bone of the vertebra and the dura mater. It is filled with fatty tissue and blood vessels.
Spinal canal
Bony cavity created by the opening (foramen) in each vertebra of the neck and back. It contains the spinal cord.
Spinal Cord
Part of the central nervous system. It begins at the medulla oblongata of the brain and extends inferiorly within the bony spinal canal.
It ends at the second lumbar vertebra, where it separates into nerve roots.
Abducens nerve
Cranial nerve VI. Motor nerve for movement of one of the extra ocular muscles of the eye.
Accessory nerve
Cranial nerve XI. Motor nerve for swallowing, movement of the vocal cords, and movement of the muscles of the neck and upper back.
Cranial nerves
Part of the peripheral nervous system. Twelve pairs of nerves (I-XII) that begin in the brain or at receptors in the body.
They carry nerve impulses as sensory information from the body to the brain and/or nerve impulses as motor commands from the brain to voluntary and involuntary muscles in the body.
Facial nerve
Cranial nerve VII.
Sensory nerve for the sense of taste.
Motor nerve of movement of the facial muscles, production of tears by the lacrimal gland, and production of saliva by the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands.
Glossopharyngeal nerve
Motor nerve for swallowing and the production of saliva by the parotid salivary glands.
Cranial nerve IX
Sensory nerve for the sense of taste.
Hypoglossal nerve
Motor nerve for movement of the tongue
Cranial nerve XII
Oculomotor nerve
Motor nerve for movement for four of the extra ocular muscles of the eye, the eyelids, and the iris.
Cranial nerve III
Olfactory nerve
Sensory never for the sense of smell
Cranial nerve I
Optic nerve
Sensory nerve for the sense of vision
Cranial nerve II
Trigeminal nerve
Sensory nerve for sensation of the face and mouth.
Motor nerve for movement of the muscles for chewing.
It consists of three branches: Ophthalmic nerve, maxillary never, mandivular nerves.
Cranial nerve V
Trochlear nerve
Motor nerve for movement of one extraocular muscle of the eye.
Cranial nerve IV
Vagus nerve
Sensory nerve for the sense of taste from the soft palate and pharynx, and for feelings in the ears, diaphragm, and the internal organs.
Motor nerve that controls the heart rate and the smooth muscles around the bronchi and gastrointestinal tract.
Cranial Nerve X
Vestibulocochlear nerve
Cranial nerve VIII. Sensory nerve for the sense of hearing and balance.
Afferent nerves
Dorsal nerve roots and their spinal nerve that carry sensory information as nerve impulses from the body to the spinal cord.
Dorsal nerve roots
Spinal nerve roots that enter the posterior (dorsal) part of the spinal cord. They receive sensory information from a specific area of the skin.
Efferent nerves
Ventral nerve roots and their spinal nerve that carry motor commands as nerve impulses away from the spinal cord or brain to the body
Reflex
Rapid, involuntary muscle reaction that is controlled by the spinal cord.
In response to sudden pain or muscle stretching, the spinal cord immediately sends a motor command to move.
The entire circuit that the nerve impulse travels is known as a reflex arc.
Spinal nerves
Part of the peripheral nervous system. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
Each pair joins the spinal cord in the area between two vertebrae. An individual spinal nerve consists of dorsal nerve roots and ventral nerve roots.
Ventral nerve roots
Spinal nerve roots that exit from the anterior (ventral) part of the spinal cord
They carry motor commands as nerve impulses to the body.
Astrocyte
Star-like structure that provides structural support for neurons, connects them to capillaries, and forms the blood-brain barrier.
Ependymal cells
Cells that line the walls of the ventricles and the central canal within the spinal cord and produce cerebrospinal fluid.
Microglia
Cells that move, engulf, and destroy pathogens anywhere in the central nervous system.
Neuroglia
Cells that hold neurons in place and perform specialized tasks. Neuroglia include astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, oligodendroglia, and Schwann cells.
Oligodendroglia
Cells that form the myelin around larger axons in the brain and spinal cord.
These cells have few branching structures.
Schwann cells
Cells that form the myelin around larger axons of the cranial and spinal nerves.
Axon
Part of the neuron that is a single, elongated extension of cytoplasm at the opposite end from the dendrite.
It conducts the electrical impulse and releases neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Cytoplasm
Gel-like substance in the cell body of a neuron; it contains structures that produce a neurotransmitter and convert it to an electrical impulse.
Myelin
Fatty, white insulated layer that are found around larger axons.
They help in increasing the speed that an electrical impulse can travel along the axon.
Neuron
An individual nerve cell. The functional unit of the nervous system.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messenger that is released from vesicles on the axon and travels across the synapse and binds with a receptor.
Nucleus
Structure in the cell body of a neuron that directs cellular activities.
Receptor
Structure on the cell membrane of a dendrite where a neurotransmitter binds.
Synapse
Space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron.
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic division. It is also in the somatic nervous system between motor neurons and voluntary skeletal muscles.
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter between neurons in the brain. It is produced by the substantia nigra of the midbrain.
Endorphins
Neuromodulators that are one of several natural pain relievers produces by the brain.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messenger that ravels across the synapse between neurons
Norepinephrine
Neurotransmitter of the sympathetic division. It is also secreted by the adrenal gland.
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter between neurons in the lambic system, brain, and spinal cord.
Amnesia
Partial or total loss of memory of recent or remote experiences. Often a consequence of a brain injury or a stroke.
Retrograde amnesia
The patient cannot remember events that occurred in the past
Anterograde amnesia
The patient cannot remember events that occurred after the onset of amnesia
Global amnesia
All memories are lost.
Anencephaly
Rare congenital condition in which some or all of the cranium and cerebrum are missing.
Aphasia
Loss of the ability to communicate verbally or in writing. Aphasia can occur with head trauma, a stroke, or a neurocognitive disorder when there is injury to or deterioration of the areas of the brain that deal with language and the interpretation of sounds and symbols.
Arteriovenous malformation (AVM)
Abnormality in which arteries in the brain connect directly to veins, forming a twisted nest of abnormal blood vessels with weak walls.
Brain death
Condition in which there is irreversible loss of all brain function as confirmed by an electroencephalogram (EEG) that is flat, showing no Brian wave activity of any kind for 30 minutes.
Brain tumor
Benign or malignant tumor in any area of the brain.
Astrocytoma
Malignant tumor on the astrocyte in the cerebrum
Ependymoma
Benign tumor in the ependymal cells that line the ventricles and the narrow central canal in the spinal cord.
Glioblastoma multiforme
Malignant tumor
Immature astrocytes in the cerebrum
Glioma
Benign or malignant tumors
Any neuroglial cells
Lymphoma
Malignant tumor
Originates in Microglia in the cerebrum
Meningioma
Benign tumors originating in the meninges around the brain or spinal cord.
Neurofiborsarcoma
Malignant tumor originating in the Schwann cells that produce myelin around neurons of the cranial and spinal nerves.
Oligodendroglioma
Malignant tumor originating in the oligodendroglia in the cerebrum.
Schwannoma
Benign tumor originating in Schwann cells that produce myelin around the neurons of the cranial and spinal nerves.
Cephalalgia
Pain in the head
Commonly known as a headache. It can be cause by eyestrain, muscle tension in the face or neck, generalized infections such as the flu, migraine headaches etc.
Cerebral palsy (CP)
Cerebral palsy is caused by abnormal development of the fetus’s brain or sometimes from a lack of oxygen during birth.
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
Disruption or blockage of blood flow to the brain, which causes tissue death and an area of necrosis known as an infarct.
Coma
Deep state of unconsciousness and unresponsive ness caused by trauma or disease in the brain, by metabolic imbalance with accumulation of waste products in the blood, or by too little glucose in the blood.
Concussion
Traumatic injury to the brain in which the brain suddenly impacts the inside of the cranium. This results in an immediate loss of consciousness (LOC) for a brief or prolonged period of time.
Delirium
Acute confusion, disorientation, and agitation due to toxic levels of chemicals, drugs, or alcohol in the blood that affect the brain.
Down syndrome
A random error in cell division creates a genetic defect in which there are three of chromosome 21 instead of the normal two.
Dyslexia
Difficulty reading and writing words even though visual acuity and intelligence are normal.
Encephalitis
Inflammation and infection of the brain caused by a virus. Herpes simples virus is the most common cause of encephalitis.
Epilepsy
Recurring condition in which a group of neurons in the brain spontaneously sends out electrical impulses in an abnormal, uncontrolled way.
Type of seizure: Tonic-clonic
Unconsciousness with excessive motor activity
Type of seizure: absence
Impaired consciousness with slight or no muscle activity.
Type of Seizure: complex partial
Some degree of impairment of consciousness with involuntary contractions of one or several muscle groups.
Type of seizure: simple partial
No impairment of consciousness.
Hematoma
Localized collection of blood that forms in the brain because of trauma to the cranium or the rupture of an intracranial aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation.
Huntington chorea
Progressive inherited degenerative disease of the brain that begins in middle age.
Characterized by dementia with spasms of the extremities and face, alternating with slow writhing movements of the hands and feet.
Hydrocephalus
Condition in which an excessive amount of cerebrospinal fluid is produced or the flow of cerebrospinal fluid is blocked.
Meningitis
Inflammation and infection of the meninges of the brain or spinal cord caused by a bacterium or virus.
Migraine headache
Specific type of recurring headache that has a sudden onset with severe, throbbing pain, often on just one side of the head.
Narcolepsy
Brief, involuntary episodes of falling asleep during the daytime while engaged in activity.
Neurocognitive disorder (NCD)
Disease of the brain in which many neurons in the cerebrum die, the cerebral cortex shrinks in size, and there is progressive deterioration in mental function.
Parkinson disease
Chronic, degenerative disease due to an imbalance in the levels of neurotransmitter dopamine and acetylcholine in the brain.
Syncope
Temporary loss of consciousness. A sync opal epixode is one in which the patient becomes lightheaded and then faints and briefly remains unconscious.
Neural tube defect
Congenital abnormality of the numeral tube. The fetus’s vertebrae form incompletely, and there is an abnormal opening in the vertebral column that is only covered by meninges and skin.
Radiculopathy
Acute or chronic condition that occurs because of a tumor, arthritis, or a Herniated nucleus pulposus (HNP) AKA slipped disk.
Spinal cord injury (SCI)
Trauma to the spinal cord with partial or complete transaction of the cord.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Chronic, progressive disease of the moron nerves coming from the spinal cord to the body. This causes muscle wastin and spasms, with eventual paralysis of all the muscles.
Anesthesia
Condition in which sensation of any type—including touch, pressure, proprioception, or pain— absent.
Bell palsy
Weakness,drooping, or paralysis of one side of the face becuase of inflammation fo the facial nerve.
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)
Chronic condition caused by repetitive motions of the hand and wrist, often from constant typing.
Guillain-Barré syndrome
Autoimmune disorder in which the body makes antibodies against myelin. There is acute inflammation of the peripheral nerves, destruction of myelin with interruption of nerve conduction, muscle weakness, and changes in sensation.
Hyperesthesia
Condition in which there is a heightened awareness and sensitivity to touch and increased response to painful stimuli.
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
Chronic, progressive, degenerative autoimmune disorder in which the body makes antibodies against myelin. There is acute inflammation of the nerves and destruction of myelin with interruption of nerve conduction in the brain and spinal cord.
Neuralgia
Pain along the path of a nerve and its branches that is caused by an injury.
Neuritis
Inflammation or infection of a nerve.
Neurofibromatosis
Hereditary disease with multiple benign fibrous tumors that grow on the peripheral nerves.
Neuroma
Benign tumor of a nerve.
A Morton neuroma specifically forms from repetitive damage to the nerve that is near the metatarsophalangeal joints between the ball of the foot and the toes.
Neuropathy
General category for any type of disease or injury to a nerve
Paresthesia
condition in which abnormal sensations, such as tingling, burning or pinpricks, are felt on the skin.
Alpha fetoprotein (AFP)
Test of a sample of amniotic fluid taken from the uterus by amniocentesis during pregnancy.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) examination
Test that visually examines the CSF for clarity and color, microscopically for cells, and chemically for proteins and other substances.
Cerebral angiography
Radiologic procedure in which radiopaque contrast dye is injected into a large artery in the arm or leg. The dye travels to the carotid artery and an x-ray is taken to visualize the arterial circulation in the brain.
Computerized axial tomography (CAT, CT)
Radiologic procedure that uses x-rays to created many individual, closely spaced images.
Doppler ultrasonography
Ultrasound procedure that uses ultra high-frequency sound waves to produce a two-dimensional image to visualize areas of stenosis and plaque as well as turbulence in the blood flow in the carotid arteries.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Radiologic procedure that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to align the protons in the body and cause them to emit signals that create an image.
Myelography
Radiologic procedure in which a radiopaque contrast dye is injected into the subarachnoid space at the level of the L3 an L4 vertebrae.
Positron emission tomography (PET) scan
Nuclear medicine procedure that uses a radioactive substance injected intravenously. As the glucose is metabolized, the radioactive substance emits positrons, and these form gamma rays that are detected by a gamma camera.
Skull x-ray
Radiologic procedure in which a plain film is taken of the skull.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Procedure to record the electrical activity of the brain.
Evoked potential testing
Procedure in which an EEG is used to record changes in Brian waves that occur following various stimuli.
Nerve conduction study
Procedure to measure the speed at which an electrical impulse travels along a nerve.
Polysomnography
Procedure to diagnose what is causing insomnia, sleep disruption, sleep apnea, or narcolepsy.
Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)
Numerical scale that measures the depth of a coma. The total score ranges from 1-15 and is the sum of individual scores for eye opening, motor responses, and verbal response following a painful stimulus.
Lumbar puncture (LP)
Procedure to obtain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for testing.
Mini-mental state examination (MMSE)
Tests the patient’s concrete and abstract thought processes and long-term and short-term memory.
Neurologic examination
Tests coordination, sensation, balance and gait.
Spinal traction
Procedure in which a fracture of the vertebra is immobilized while it heals.
Two metal pins are surgically inserted into the cranium and attached to a set of tongs with a rope and pulley and 7-10 pounds of weight. this keeps the vertebral fracture in alignment while it heals.
Analgesic drug
Treats mild-to-moderate pain as an over-the-counter drug.
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
Procedure that uses an electrical device to control chronic pain.
Antiepileptic drug
Prevents the seizures of epilepsy
Corticosteroid drug
Treats inflammation from chronic pain and multiple sclerosis.
Drug for Alzheimer’s disease
inhibits an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine
Drug for neuralgia and neuropathy
Works in various ways to treat the many different causes of neuralgia and neuropathy. These drugs include anticonvulsant drugs, antianxiety drugs, and antidepressant drugs
Drug for parkinson disease
Stimulates dopamine receptors or inhibits the action of acetylcholine to allow more dopamine to reach the brain.
Aneurysmectomy
Procedure to remove an aneurysm and repair the artery.
Biopsy
Procedure to remove a tumor or mass from the brain or other part of the nervous system.
Carotid endarterectomy
Procedure to move plaque from the carotid artery.
This opens up the lumen of the artery, restores blood flow to the brain, and decreases the possibility of a stroke.
Craniotomy
Incision into the cranium to expose the brain tissue. A craniotomy is the first phase of any type of brain surgery, such as removing a sub Duran hematoma or excising a brain tumor.
Diskectomy
Procedure to remove part of all of a herniated nucleaus pulposus from an intervertebral disk.
Relieves pressure on the adjacent dorsal nerve roots and relieves the pain.
Laminectomy
Procedure to remove the lamina. Removal of the bony segment relieves pressure on the dorsal nerve roots and relieves pain from a herniated nucleus pulposus.
Stereotactic neurosurgery
Procedure to remove a tumor deep within the cerebrum. A CT or MRI scan is used to show the tumor in three dimensions and give items precise coordinates.
Ventriculoperitoneal Shunt
Procedure to insert a plastic tube to connect the ventricles of the brain to the peritoneal cavity.
AFP
Alpha fetoprotein
ALS
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
AVM
Arteriovenous malformation
BAEP
Brainstem auditory evoked potential
BAER
Brainstem auditory evoked response
CAT, CT
Computerized axial tomography
CNS
Central Nervous system
CP
Cerebral Palsy
CRPS
Complex regional pain syndrome
CSF
Cerebrospinal fluid
CTS
Carpal tunnel syndrome
CVA
Cerebrovascular accident
DT
Delirium tremendous
EEG
Electroencephalogram, Electroencephalography
GCS
Glasgow Coma Scale
HNP
Herniated nucleus pulposus
ICP
Intracranial pressure
LOC
Loss of consciousness
LP
Lumbar Puncture
MMSE
Mini-mental State Examination
MRI
MAgnetic Resonance imaging
MS
Multiple sclerosis
NCD
Neurocognitive disorder
NICU
Neurologic intensive care unit
PET
Positron emission tomography
REM
Rapid eye movement
RIND
Reversible ischemic neurologic deficit
SCI
Spinal cord injury
SSEP
Somatosensory evoked potential
SSER
Somatosensory evoked response
TBI
Traumatic Brain injury
TENS
Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve stimulation
TIA
Transient ischemic attack
VEP
Visual evoked potential
VER
Visual Evoked response
