Chapter 8

Question 1

psychosocial development

Answer 1

according to Erikson, development
that encompasses changes
both in the understanding
individuals have of themselves as
members of society and in their
comprehension of the meaning of
others’ behavior

Question 2

initiative-versus-guilt stage

Answer 2

according to Erikson, the period
during which children aged three
and six years experience conflict
between independence of action
and the sometimes negative
results of that action

Question 3

self-concept

Answer 3

a person’s identity, or set of beliefs
about what one is like as an
individual

Question 4

collectivistic orientation

Answer 4

a philosophy that promotes the
notion of interdependence

Question 5

individualistic orientation

Answer 5

a philosophy that emphasizes
personal identity and the
uniqueness of the individual

Question 6

race dissonance

Answer 6

the phenomenon in which
minority children indicate
preferences for majority values or
people

Question 7

Oedipal conflict

Answer 7

occurs
at around the age of five, when the anatomical differences between males and females
become particularly evident. Boys begin to develop sexual interests in their mothers,
viewing their fathers as rivals

Question 8

identification

Answer 8

the process in which children
attempt to be similar to their
same-sex parent, incorporating the
parent’s attitudes and values

Question 9

gender identity

Answer 9

the perception of oneself as male
or female

Question 10

gender schema

Answer 10

a cognitive framework that
organizes information relevant to
gender

Question 11

gender constancy

Answer 11

the belief that people are
permanently males or females,
depending on fixed, unchangeable
biological factors

Question 12

androgynous

Answer 12

a state in which gender roles
encompass characteristics thought
typical of both sexes

Question 13

Approaches to gender development

Answer 13

biological

psychoanalytical

social learning

cognitive

Question 14

biological (gender development)

Answer 14

Our ancestors who behaved in ways that are now
stereotypically feminine or masculine may have been more
successful in reproducing. Brain differences may lead to
gender differences.

Question 15

Psychoanalytical (gender development)

Answer 15

Gender development is the result of identification with the
same-sex parent, achieved by moving through a series of
stages related to biological urges

Question 16

social learning (gender development)

Answer 16

Children learn gender-related behavior and expectations from
their observation of others’ behavior.

Question 17

cognitive (gender development)

Answer 17

Through the use of gender schemas, developed early in life,
preschoolers form a lens through which they view the world. They
use their increasing cognitive abilities to develop “rules” about
what is appropriate for males and females.

Question 18

functional play

Answer 18

play that involves simple,
repetitive activities typical of
three-year-olds

Question 19

constructive play

Answer 19

play in which children manipulate
objects to produce or build
something

Question 20

parallel play

Answer 20

action in which children play with
similar toys, in a similar manner,
but do not interact with each other

Question 21

onlooker play

Answer 21

action in which children simply
watch others at play, but do not
actually participate themselves

Question 22

associative play

Answer 22

play in which two or more children
actually interact with one another
by sharing or borrowing toys or
materials, although they do not do
the same thing

Question 23

cooperative play

Answer 23

play in which children genuinely
interact with one another, taking
turns, playing games, or devising
contests

Question 24

theory of mind

Answer 24

knowledge and beliefs about how the mind operates

Question 25

authoritarian parents

Answer 25

parents who are controlling, punitive, rigid, and cold, and whose word is law

Question 26

permissive parents

Answer 26

parents who provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children

Question 27

authoritative parents

Answer 27

parents who are firm, setting clear and consistent limits, but who try to reason with their children, giving explanations for why they should behave in a particular way

Question 28

uninvolved parents

Answer 28

parents who show almost no interest in their children and indifferent, rejecting behavior

Question 29

cycle of violence hypothesis

Answer 29

the theory that the abuse and neglect that children suffer predispose them as adults to abuse and neglect their own children

Question 30

psychological maltreatment

Answer 30

abuse that occurs when parents or other caregivers harm children’s behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning

Question 31

resilience

Answer 31

the ability to overcome circumstances that place a child at high risk for psychological or physical damage

Question 32

moral development

Answer 32

the changes in people’s sense of justice and of what is right and wrong, and in their behavior related to moral issues

Question 33

heteronomous morality

Answer 33

The earliest stage of moral development, it is a broad form of moral thinking. Here rules are seen as invariant and unchangeable. This stage lasts from age 4 to age 7. When children play a game they assume there is one lone way to play it and every other way is wrong.

Question 34

incipient cooperation stage

Answer 34

The second stage of moral development. Lasts from age 7 to age 10. They learn the actual formal rules and play according to this shared knowledge. Rules are still seen as largely unchangeable.

Question 35

autonomous cooperation stage

Answer 35

The third stage in moral development, it starts at age 10. Children are now aware that formal game rules can be modified if all people playing agree.

Question 36

prosocial behavior

Answer 36

helping behavior that benefits others

Question 37

abstract modeling

Answer 37

the process in which modeling paves the way for the development of more general rules and principles

Question 38

empathy

Answer 38

the understanding of what another individual feels

Question 39

aggression

Answer 39

intentional injury or harm to another person

Question 40

emotional self-regulation

Answer 40

the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity

Question 41

instrumental aggression

Answer 41

aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal

Question 42

relational aggression

Answer 42

nonphysical aggression that is intended to hurt another person’s feelings