Chapter 1 Flashcards
What do specialists in lifespan development focus on?
growth and change that occur throughout a lifespan
lifespan development
the field of study that examines patterns of growth, and change, and stability in behaviour that occur throughout the entire lifespan
physical development
development involving the body’s physical markup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep
cognitive develoment
development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behaviour.
They examine aspects such as learning, memory, and problem solving skills.
social development
the ways in which individuals’ interactions with each other and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life
The age ranges during develoment
prenatal (conception to birth)
infancy and toddlerhood (birth - 3)
preschool (3-6)
middle childhood (6-12)
adolescence (12-20)
young adulthood (20-40)
middle adulthood (40-65)
late adulthood (65 - death)
social constructions
shared notion of reality, that is widely accepted by society and culture
cohort
a group of people born at around the same time in the same place
age-graded influence
biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group
socio-cultural influences
the social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on variables such as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership
non-normative life events
specific, atypical events that occur in a person’s life at a time when such events do not happen to most people
key issues in lifespan development
continuous change
discontinuous change
critical analysis
sensitive analysis
lifespan approach
particular periods approach
Nature (genetic factors)
Nurture (environmental factors)
continuous change
gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels
- It is quantitive in nature
discontinuous change
development that occurs in distinct steps, or stages, with each step bringing about behaviour that is assumed to be qualitively different from behaviour at earlier stages
critical period
a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally
sensitive period
A point of development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environment, but their absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences
maturation
the predetermined unfolding of genetic information
nature
traits and abilities that are inherited from one’s parents
nurture
environmental influences that shape behaviour
psychodynamic perspective
the approach that behaviour us motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond peoples awareness and control
psychoanalytic theory
the theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and bahaviour
id
the raw unorganized, inborn part of personality, which is present at birth
pleasure principle
the goal to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension
ego
the rational part of the personality. It acts as a buffer between id and the real world.
reality principle
where the instinctual energy is restraint in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society
superego
represents the conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong
psychosexual development
According to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification focuses on a particular function and body part
different stages of psychosexual development
oral
anal
phallic
latency
genital
oral
interested in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, biting (trust vs mistrust)
anal
gratification from expelling or withholding feces. Coming to terms with societies controls related toilet training (Autonomy vs Shame and doubt)
phallic
Interest in the genitals. Coming to terms with Oedipal conflict, leading to identification with same sex parent. (Initiative vs guilt)
latency
sexually concerns largely unimportant (industry vs inferiority)
genital
reemergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships (identity vs role diffusion)
fixation
behviour reflecting on earlier stage of development due to an unresolved conflict
psychosocial develpment
the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society
generativity vs stagnation phase
were contributions to family, community, and society can either produce positive feelings about the continuity of life or a sense of stagnation and disappointment about what they are passing on to future generations
behavioural perspective
the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
operant conditioning
a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences
behavioral modification
a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behavior and decreases the incidence of unwanted ones
social-cognitive learning theory
learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model.
four steps of social cognitive learning process
- an observer must pay attention and perceive the most critical features of behavior
- The observer must successfully recall the behavior
- The observer must reproduce the behavior accurately
- the observer must be motivated to learn and carry out the bahavior
cognitive perspecive
the approach that focusses on the process that allows people to know understand and think about the world
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
This theory proposes that all people pass through a fixed series of developmental stages
schemes
organized mental patterns that represent behavior and actions
assimilation
the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and thinking
accomodation
changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli
information processing approach
models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use and store information
neo-Piagetian theory
considers cognition as being made up of different types of individual skills. Suggests that development occurs quickly in some areas and slower in others
cognitive neuroscience approaches
approaches that examine cognitive development through the lens of brain processes
humanistic perspective
the theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior
self actualization
state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way
contextual perspective
the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, and social worlds
bioecological perspective
the perspective that suggests that different levels of the environment simultaneously influences the environment
five levels that influence individuals according to the bioecological perspective
- microsystem
- mesosystem
- exosystem
- macrosystem
- chromosystem
microsystem
the everyday, immediate environment
mesosystem
provides connections between the various aspects of the microsystem
exosystem
broader influences, encompassing societal institutions
macrosystem
larger cultural influences on an individual eg society or value systems
chronosystem
underlies each of the previous systems and involves the passage of time and more gradual historical changes.
individualism
the dominant western philosophy that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of an individual
collectivism
the notion that well-being of the group is more important than the wellbeing of an individual
sociocultural theory
the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
evolutionary perspective
the theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
ethology
a field that examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior
behavioral genetics
an area within lifespan development which studies the effects of heredity on behavior
six major perspectives in lifespan development
- Psychodynamic
- behavioral
- cognitive
- humanistic
- contextual
- evolutionary
eclectic approach
drawing on a variety of different approaches
scientific method
the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data
the three steps of the scientific method
- Identifying the question of interest
- formulating explanations
- carrying out reseach
theories
explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts and principles
hyposthesis
a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested
two major research categories
correlational research and experimental research
correlational reseach
research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists
experimental research
research designed to discover causal relationships between two factors
naturalistic observations
a type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observes without intervention
ethnography
a method used to investigate cultural questions
case study
a study that involves extensive in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals
survey research
a type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior or thinking on a given topic
psycho-physiological methods
research that focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and psychological behaviour
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
The EEG reports electrical activity within the brain
recorded
by electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. That brain activity is transformed
into a pictorial representation of the brain, permitting the representation of brain
wave patterns and diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy and learning disabilities.
Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan
In a CAT scan, a computer constructs
an image of the brain by combining thousands of individual X-rays taken at slightly
different angles. Although it does not show brain activity, it does illuminate the
structure of the brain.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
scan. An fMRI provides a detailed,
three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain activity by aiming a powerful
magnetic field at the brain. It offers one of the best ways of learning about the operation
of the brain, down to the level of individual nerves.
experiment
a process in which an investigator,
called an experimenter, devises
two different experiences for participants
and then studies and
compares the outcomes
sample
the group of participants chosen
for the experiment
field study
a research investigation carried
out in a naturally occurring
setting
laboratory study
a research investigation conducted
in a controlled setting explicitly
designed to hold events constant
theoretical research
research designed specifically
to test some developmental
explanation and expand scientific
knowledge
applied research
research meant to provide
practical solutions to immediate
problems
longitudinal research
research in which the behavior of
one or more participants in a study
is measured as they age
cross sectional research
research in which people of different
ages are compared at the same
point in time
sequential stories
research in which researchers examine
a number of different age
groups over several points in time
