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PSYC 332 > Chapter 7: The Trait Approach > Flashcards

Chapter 7: The Trait Approach Flashcards

1
Q

what do trait psychologists do?

A

identify characteristics that can be represented upon a continuum

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2
Q

who can be placed on a continuum?

A

we can take any person and place them somewhere along the continuum

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3
Q

distribution of people on a continuum

A

Personality traits are normally distributed

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4
Q

trait

A

a dimension of personality used to categorize people according to the degree to which they manifest a particular characteristic

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5
Q

two assumptions of the trait approach

A
  • Personality characteristics are relatively stable over time
  • Personality characteristics are stable across situations
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6
Q

personality in old age

A

our personality continues to develop as we move into old age

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7
Q

goal of trait psychologists

A

predict how people who score within a certain segment of the trait continuum typically behave

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8
Q

the significance of people’s score on a trait measure

A

lies in how the individual compares with other people

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9
Q

psychotherapy and the trait appraoch

A

No major schools of psychotherapy have evolved from the trait approach

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10
Q

Gordon Allport’s life

A
  • Published the first recognized work on traits by a psychologist
  • Taught the first college course on personality in 1925
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11
Q

Gordon Allport on psychoanalytic theory

A

Rejected much of psychoanalytic theory

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12
Q

Gordon Allport on the limitations of the trait approach

A

Acknowledged the limitations of the trait approach

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13
Q

What did Allport consider to be the limits of the trait approach?

A
  • Behaviour is influenced by a variety of environmental factors
  • Traits are not useful for predicting what a single individual will do
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14
Q

Allport on the nervous system

A

Believed that our traits have physical components in our nervous system that scientists will one day develop technology advanced enough to identify

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15
Q

Allport’s two approaches for investigating personality

A
  • Nomothetic approach
  • Idiographic approach
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16
Q

Nomothetic approach

A

all people can be described along a single dimension

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17
Q

Idiographic approach

A

identified the unique combination of traits that best accounts for an individual’s personality

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18
Q

common traits

A

traits that presumably apply to everyone

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19
Q

central traits

A

the 5-10 traits that best describe an individual’s personality

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20
Q

cardinal trait

A

a trait that dominates a personality

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21
Q

does everyone have cardinal traits according to Allport?

A

no, this only occurs occasionally

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22
Q

secondary traits

A

traits that describe one’s personality, but are less important than central traits

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23
Q

advantage of the idiographic approach

A

the person, not the researcher, determines what traits to examine

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24
Q

Henry Murray

A

Developed an approach called personology

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25
Q

Henry Murray on psychoanalysis

A
  • Proposed a blend of psychoanalytic and trait concepts
  • Studied extensively with Carl Jung
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26
Q

what did Henry Murray develop?

A

Developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which is designed to get at material not available to conscious thought

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27
Q

psychogenic needs

A

a largely unconscious readiness to respond in a certain way under certain conditions

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28
Q

what are the basic elements of personality according to Murray?

A

psychogenic needs

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29
Q

how many psychogenic needs are there?

A

27

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30
Q

Murray on needs

A

everyone can be described in terms of a personal hierarchy of needs

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31
Q

structure of an individual’s hierarchy of needs

A

Each person’s hierarchy compares the strength of their traits to their other traits, not to other people

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32
Q

press

A

the situation

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33
Q

what determines if a need is activated according to Murray?

A

the press

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34
Q

Raymond Cattell

A
  • Argued that psychologists should not begin with a preconceived list of personality traits
  • Believed that many personality traits are related
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35
Q

factor analysis

A

the statistical technique used by Cattell in an attempt to discover the structure of the human personality

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36
Q

limitation of factor analysis

A

the procedure is confined by the type of data chosen for analysis

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37
Q

source traits

A

the basic traits that make up the human personality

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38
Q

how many traits did Cattell identify

A

16 basic traits

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39
Q

what did Cattell develop?

A

Created a personality test called the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF), a measure that provides scores for each of the source traits

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40
Q

1949 veterans study

A

conducted extensive personality assessments of 128 men who had been admitted into the Veteran Adminstration’s clinical psychology training program and found that there were five basic personality factors

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41
Q

what were the five factors Fiske found?

A
  1. Social adaptability (talkative, makes good company)
  2. Emotional control (easily upset, has sustained anxieties)
  3. Conformity (ready to cooperate, conscientious)
  4. The inquiring intellect (intellectual curiosity, an exploring mind)
  5. Confident self-expression (cheerful, not selfish)
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42
Q

Fiske’s findings today

A

foreshadowed the direction personality research would take

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43
Q

the Big Five

A

five basic dimensions of personality that many different teams of researchers have found evidence for

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44
Q

neuroticism

A

places people along a continuum according to their emotional stability and personal adjustment

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45
Q

high in neuroticism

A

frequently experiences emotional distress and wide swings in emotions

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46
Q

low in neuroticism

A

calm, well-adjusted, and not prone to extreme emotional reactions

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47
Q

negative emotional states across situations

A

People who are prone to one kind of negative emotional state often experience others

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48
Q

extraversion

A

places people on a continuum according to their level of sociability

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49
Q

high in extraversion

A

sociable, energetic, optimistic, friendly, and assertive

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50
Q

low in extraversion

A

reserved, independent, even-paced

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51
Q

extraverts vs. introverts’ friendships

A

Extraverts have more friends and spend more time in social situations

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52
Q

openness

A

places people on a continuum along their level of openness to experience

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53
Q

high in openness

A

an active imagination, a willingness to consider new ideas, divergent thinking, and intellectual curiosity

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54
Q

low in openness

A

prefer the familiar rather than seeking out something new

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55
Q

intelligence and openness

A

Some researchers refer to it as intellect, but it isn’t the same thing as intelligence

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56
Q

agreeableness

A

places people on a continuum according to their levels of softheartedness and trust

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57
Q

high in agreeableness

A

helpful, trusting, and sympathetic

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58
Q

low in agreeableness

A

antagonistic and skeptical

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59
Q

agreeableness and social interactions

A

People high in agreeableness have more pleasant social interactions and fewer quarrelsome exchanges

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60
Q

agreeableness and helping those in need

A

People high in agreeableness are more likely to help those in need

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61
Q

conscientiousness

A

places people on a continuum according to their levels of control and self-discipline

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62
Q

high in conscientiousness

A

organized, plan-oriented, and determined

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63
Q

low in conscientiousness

A

careless, easily distracted, and undependable

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64
Q

conscientiousness and health

A

People high in conscientiousness tend to be healthier and live longer than those low in this dimension

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65
Q

ongoing questions related to the big five model

A
  1. There is some debate about what the five factors mean; they may simply represent the adjectives available to us in our language
  2. There is some disagreement about the structure of the five-factor model
  3. Does our personality change as we age?
  4. Would psychologists be better off relying on only five main traits instead of the hundreds of smaller traits they now use?
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66
Q

big five and language

A

Numerous studies indicate that the Big Five does not merely reflect the structure of the English language, but appears to be a universal pattern for describing personality

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67
Q

disagreements of the structure of the five factor model

A
  • Some factor-analytic studies have found evidence for 7, 6, 3, 2, and 1 basic factors
  • Different research outcomes might reflect differences in how broadly investigators conceive of personality structure
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68
Q

personality as we age

A

Our personalities become fairly stable in our 20s and show little signs of changing after age 30

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69
Q

the big five and aging

A
  • Older adults tend to be higher than younger adults in conscientiousness and agreeableness
  • People tend to become lower in neuroticism as they move through adulthood
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70
Q

Would psychologists be better off relying on only five main traits instead of the hundreds of smaller traits they now use?

A
  • Examining a specific trait is better for predicting relevant behaviours
  • However, using the Big Five can be useful for diagnosing clinical disorders, working with therapy patients, and identifying problematic health behaviours
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71
Q

Mischel’s Criticisms of the Trait Approach

A
  • Trait measures do not predict behaviour well
  • There is little evidence for cross-situational consistency
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72
Q

how is behaviour determined?

A

Both the person and the situation

73
Q

person-by-situation approach

A

looking at the relationship among traits, situations, and behaviours

74
Q

how much variance in behaviour does the personality coefficient account for?

A

10%

75
Q

correlation coefficient of personality traits and behaviour

A

0.3-0.4

76
Q

Harsthrone & May, 1928 cross-situational consistency study

A

measured honesty in 23 different ways among more than 8,000 elementary school children and found an average intercorrelation among these measures of only 0.23

77
Q

personality psychologists’ responses to Mischel’s criticisms

A
  • researchers often fail to produce strong links between traits and behaviour because they don’t measure behaviour correctly
  • Researchers may be looking at the wrong traits
  • 10% variance is improtant
78
Q

how do researchers measure behaviour?

A
  • Typical investigations use trait scores to predict only one measure of behaviour, which violates a basic concept in psychological testing
  • A behavioural score based on one measure is so low in reliability that it is almost impossible to find a correlation with any test score higher than 0.30 to 0.40
79
Q

alternative way of measuring behaviour

A

using aggregate data

80
Q

Epstein, 1979 aggregate extraversion study

A

found a significant correlation between extraversion and the number of social contacts initiated over two weeks

81
Q

Wu & Clark, 2003 aggregate aggression study

A

found a significant correlation between trait measures of aggression and the number of aggressive acts students performed over the course of two weeks

82
Q

what traits should we use when looking for a link between traits and behaviour?

A

A trait is more likely to predict behaviour if it is important for the person

83
Q

what happens when researchers limit their samples to people for whom the trait is central?

A

they find significantly higher correlations between trait scores and behaviour

84
Q

Rosenthal, 1990 aspirin study

A

found that aspirin significantly reduced the risk of heart attacks with a correlation of around 0.03, which accounted for less than 1% of the variance

85
Q

what does the Rosenthal aspirin study demonstrate

A

that 10% of variance is significant

86
Q

goal of most psychological studies

A

to account for some of the variance in a relationship

87
Q

effects of situational variables vs. trait variables

A

The effects of situational variables are no more important than the effects deemed weak by critics of personality traits

88
Q

strengths of the trait approach

A
  • Used objective and empirical measures
  • Has many practical applications
  • Has generated a large amount of research
89
Q

critcisms of the trait approach

A
  • Does not explain how traits develop or what can be done to help people who have extreme scores
  • The lack of an agreed-upon framework
90
Q

who tends to be high in openness?

A

Many innovative artists and scientists tend to be high in openness

91
Q

is it better to know about one’s traits, the situation, or both?

A

Knowing about personality and the situation is better than having information about only one

92
Q

the personality coefficient

A

the correlation between a given trait and behaviour

93
Q

what is the personality coefficient for most traits?

A

0.30 to 0.40

94
Q

the trait approach

A

Identifies personality characteristics that can be represented along a continuum

95
Q

how does the trait approach categorize people?

A

by the extent to which they display a certain trait

96
Q

Gordon Allport significance

A
  • Brought personality into the mainstream
  • Shed light on the significance of traits through a theory of personality development
97
Q

what types of traits does the nomothetic approach encompass?

A

common traits

98
Q

what types of traits does the idiographic approach encompass?

A

central, cardinal, and secondary traits

99
Q

Allport’s definition of personality

A

The dynamic organization within an individual, of those psychophysical systems that determines their characteristic behaviour and thought

100
Q

Allport on behaviourism

A
  • strongly opposed behaviourism
  • argued that humans are not empty vessels
  • believed that the stimulus-response description of humans is dehumanizing
101
Q

what influenced Allport

A

gestalt psychology

102
Q

what did gestalt psychology emphasize?

A
  • Wholeness
  • Interrelatedness
  • Conscious experience
103
Q

dynamic organization

A
  • personality is constantly changing (experiences change people)
  • personality is never something that is; rather, it is always becoming
104
Q

psychophysical systems

A

nothing is exclusively mental nor biological; body and mind are fused

105
Q

What constitutes an adequate theory of personality according to Allport?

A

1.Personality is contained within the person
2. Views people as filled with variables that contribute to actions
3. Seeks motives for behaviour in the present, not the past
4. Employs units of measure capable of living synthesis
5. Adequately accounts for self-awareness

106
Q

what is responsible for personality according to Allport?

A

Internal mechanisms

107
Q

Allport on motivation

A
  • Normal adults are aware of their motives
  • Healthy adult motives are independent of earlier experiences
108
Q

impact of heredity on the nature of personality

A
  • provides raw materials
  • shaped, expanded, or limited by environmental conditions
  • emphasis on uniqueness through genetic combinations
109
Q

the nature of personality over time

A
  • no continuum of personality between childhood and adulthood
  • discrete or discontinuous nature of personality
  • adult personality is not constrained by early experiences
110
Q

personality traits

A

Distinguishing traits that guide behaviour

111
Q

what influences personality traits?

A

social, environmental, and cultural factors

112
Q

the development of a trait

A

Several factors are involved in the development of a trait

113
Q

what factors are at play in the development of traits?

A

early attachment and later social contact

114
Q

traits and the organization of the world

A
  • People confront the world in terms of their traits
  • Traits organize experiences
  • People can only respond to the world in terms of their traits
  • Traits account for the consistence of human behaviour
115
Q

trait/situation interaction

A

Traits can lead to a range of possible behaviours that are activated at varying points within a range according to the demands of the situation

116
Q

the proprium

A

All aspects of personality are integrated by an organizing agent

117
Q

2 types of conscience

A

must and ought conscience

118
Q

must conscience

A

the fear of punishment and obedience

119
Q

ought conscience

A

certain things that ought to be obtained and others avoided

120
Q

what form of conscience is linked to the proprium?

A

ought conscience

121
Q

8 steps of the development of the proprium

A
  1. bodily self
  2. self-identity
  3. self-esteem
  4. extension of the self
  5. self-image
  6. the self as a rational concept
  7. propriate striving
  8. adulthood
122
Q

bodily self

A
  • emerges during the first 3 years of life
  • infants become aware of their own existence and distinguish their bodies from objects in the environment
123
Q

self-identity

A
  • emerges during the first 3 years of life
  • children realize that their identity remains intact despite the many changes that are taking place
124
Q

self-esteem

A
  • emerges during the first 3 years of life
  • children learn to take pride in their accomplishments
125
Q

extension of the self

A
  • emerges from ages 4-5
  • children come to recognize the objects and people that are part of their own world
126
Q

self-image

A
  • emerges from ages 4-5
  • children develop actual and idealized images of themselves and their behaviour and become aware of satisfying (or failing to satisfy) parental expectations
127
Q

self as a rational coper

A
  • emerges from ages 6-12
  • children begin to apply reason and logic to the solution of everyday problems
128
Q

propriate striving

A
  • emerges during adolescence
  • young people begin to formulate long-range goals and plans
129
Q

adulthood

A
  • normal, mature adults are functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives
  • they function rationally in the present and consciously create their own lifestyles
130
Q

focus of psychoanalytic theory vs. trait theory

A

psychoanalytic theory focuses on the past and the trait approach focuses on the present

131
Q

trait theorists on the prevalence of particular traits

A

all people possess certain traits, but that the degree to which a given trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified

132
Q

what aproach did Allport employ?

A

idiographic

133
Q

function of personality for Cattell

A

predicting what people will do in a given situation

134
Q

what kind of approach did Cattell emply?

A

nomothetic

135
Q

use of the 16 PF today

A

is widely used to determine if someone will be a good fit for a job

136
Q

Hans Eysenck

A
  • Used factor analysis to identify patterns of traits
  • Found that personality could be best described in terms of just three major dimensions
137
Q

Eysenck’s 3 traits

A
  • psychoticism
  • extraversion
  • neuroticism
    (PEN)
138
Q

Psychoticism

A

the degree to which reality is distorted

139
Q

Extraversion

A

the degree of sociability

140
Q

neuroticism

A

encompasses emotional stability

141
Q

benefit of Eysnck’s approach

A

Eysenck has been able to predict behaviour accurately in a variety of situations

142
Q

adjectives assocaited with psychoticism

A
  • aggressive
  • cold
  • egocentric
  • impersonal
  • impulsive
143
Q

adjectives associated with extraversion

A
  • sociable
  • lively
  • active
  • assetive
  • sensation-seeking
144
Q

adjectives associated with neuroticism

A
  • anxious
  • depressed
  • feelings of guilt
  • low self-esteem
  • tense
145
Q

what is the most influential trait approach over the last two decades?

A

the big five

146
Q

how did researchers develop the big five?

A

modern factor analysis

147
Q

personology

A

a combination of psychoanalytic and trait concept

148
Q

needs (murray)

A

basic elements of personality

149
Q

Viscerogenic needs

A

physiological needs like food and water

150
Q

psychogenic needs

A

readiness to respond in a certain way under certain conditions

151
Q

how are psychogenic needs activated?

A

cues in the environment

152
Q

what kinds of needs did murray focus on?

A

psychogenic needs

153
Q

murray’s main contributions to personality

A
  • Thematic Apprecption Test (TAT)
  • Stimulated extensive research on psychogenic needs
154
Q

murray’s principles

A
  1. Personality is rooted in the brain. The individual’s cerebral physiology guides and governs every aspect of the personality
  2. Tension reduction: people act to reduce physiological and psychological tension, but this does not mean we strive for a tension-free state
  3. An individual’s personality continues to develop over time: it is constructed of all of the events that occur during the course of that person’s life
  4. Personality changes and progresses; it is not fixed or static
  5. Each person is unique. However, there are similarities among all people
155
Q

why does murray believe personality is rooted in the brain?

A
  • Certain drugs can alter the functioning of the brain, and the personality
  • Everything on which personality depends exists in the brain, including feeling states, conscious and unconscious memories, beliefs, attitudes, fears, and values
156
Q

what state of tension is most satisyfing for murray?

A

It is the process of acting to reduce tension that is satisfying, not the attainment of a condition free of tension

157
Q

murray on a tension-free existence

A
  • Murray believed that a tension-free existence is itself a source of distress
  • We need excitement, activity, and movement
  • We generate tension to have the satisfaction of reducing it
  • We must have a certain level of tension to reduce
158
Q

murray on the past

A

the study of a person’s past is of great importance because it constructs their personality

159
Q

abasement

A
  • to submit passively to external forces
  • to accept injury, blame, criticism, and punishment
  • to admit inferiority, error, wrongdoing, or defeat
  • to blame, belittle, or mutilate the self
  • to seek and enjoy pain, punishment, illness, and misfortune
160
Q

acheivement

A
  • to accomplish something diffiuclt
  • to master, manipulate, or organize physical objects, human beings, or ideas
  • to overcome obstacles and attain a high standard
  • to rival and surpass others
161
Q

affiliation

A
  • to draw near and enjoyable cooperate or reciprocate with an allied other who resembles one or who likes one
  • to adhere and remain loyal to a freind
162
Q

aggression

A
  • to overcome opposition forcefully
  • to fight, attack, injure, or kill another
  • to maliciously belittle, censure, or ridicule another
163
Q

autonomy

A
  • to get free, shake off restraint, or break out of confinement
  • to resist coercion and restriction
  • to be independent and free to act according to impulse
  • to defy conventions
164
Q

counteraction

A
  • to master or make up for failure by restriving
  • to overcome weaknesses and to repress fear
  • to search for obstacles and difficulties to overcome
  • to maintain self-respect and pride on a high level
165
Q

defendance

A
  • to defend the self against assault, criticism, and blame
  • to conceal or justify a misdeed, failure, or humnilation
166
Q

deference

A
  • to admire and support a superior other
  • to yield eagerly to the influence of an allied other
  • to conform to custom
167
Q

dominance

A
  • to control one’s enviornment
  • to influence or direct the behaviour of others by suggestion. seduction, persuasion, or command
  • to get others to cooperate
  • to convince another of the rightness of one’s opinion
168
Q

exhibition

A
  • to make an impression
  • to be seen and heard
  • to excite, amaze, fascinate, entertain, shock, intrigue, amuse or entice others
169
Q

hamavoidance

A
  • to avoid pain, physical injury, illness, and death
  • to escape from a dangerous situation
  • to take precautionary measures
170
Q

infavoidance

A
  • to avoid humilation
  • to quit embarassing situations or to avoid conditions that may lead to the scorn, derision, or indifference of others
  • to refrain from action because of fear of failure
171
Q

nurturance

A
  • to give sympathy to and gratify the needs of a helpless other, an infant, or one who is weak. disabled, tired, inexperienced, infirm, humiliated, lonely, dejected, or mentally confused
172
Q

order

A
  • to put things in order
  • to acheive clealiness, arrangement, organization, balance, neatness, and precision
173
Q

play

A
  • to act for fun, without further purpose
174
Q

rejection

A
  • to exclude, abandon, epel, or remain indifferent to an inferior other
  • to snub or jily another
175
Q

sex

A
  • to seek and enjoy sensuous impressions
176
Q

sentience

A
  • to seek and enjoy sensuous impressions
177
Q

succorance

A
  • to be nursed, supported, sustained, surrounded, protected, loved, advised, guided, indulged, forgiven, or consoled
  • to remain close to a devoted protector
178
Q

understanding

A
  • to be inclined to analyze events and to generalize
  • to discuss and argue and to emphasize reason and logic
  • to state one’s opinions precisely
  • to show interest in abstract formulations in science, math, and philosophy

PSYC 332 (12 decks)

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