Chapter 7: The Trait Approach Flashcards
what do trait psychologists do?
identify characteristics that can be represented upon a continuum
who can be placed on a continuum?
we can take any person and place them somewhere along the continuum
distribution of people on a continuum
Personality traits are normally distributed
trait
a dimension of personality used to categorize people according to the degree to which they manifest a particular characteristic
two assumptions of the trait approach
- Personality characteristics are relatively stable over time
- Personality characteristics are stable across situations
personality in old age
our personality continues to develop as we move into old age
goal of trait psychologists
predict how people who score within a certain segment of the trait continuum typically behave
the significance of people’s score on a trait measure
lies in how the individual compares with other people
psychotherapy and the trait appraoch
No major schools of psychotherapy have evolved from the trait approach
Gordon Allport’s life
- Published the first recognized work on traits by a psychologist
- Taught the first college course on personality in 1925
Gordon Allport on psychoanalytic theory
Rejected much of psychoanalytic theory
Gordon Allport on the limitations of the trait approach
Acknowledged the limitations of the trait approach
What did Allport consider to be the limits of the trait approach?
- Behaviour is influenced by a variety of environmental factors
- Traits are not useful for predicting what a single individual will do
Allport on the nervous system
Believed that our traits have physical components in our nervous system that scientists will one day develop technology advanced enough to identify
Allport’s two approaches for investigating personality
- Nomothetic approach
- Idiographic approach
Nomothetic approach
all people can be described along a single dimension
Idiographic approach
identified the unique combination of traits that best accounts for an individual’s personality
common traits
traits that presumably apply to everyone
central traits
the 5-10 traits that best describe an individual’s personality
cardinal trait
a trait that dominates a personality
does everyone have cardinal traits according to Allport?
no, this only occurs occasionally
secondary traits
traits that describe one’s personality, but are less important than central traits
advantage of the idiographic approach
the person, not the researcher, determines what traits to examine
Henry Murray
Developed an approach called personology
Henry Murray on psychoanalysis
- Proposed a blend of psychoanalytic and trait concepts
- Studied extensively with Carl Jung
what did Henry Murray develop?
Developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which is designed to get at material not available to conscious thought
psychogenic needs
a largely unconscious readiness to respond in a certain way under certain conditions
what are the basic elements of personality according to Murray?
psychogenic needs
how many psychogenic needs are there?
27
Murray on needs
everyone can be described in terms of a personal hierarchy of needs
structure of an individual’s hierarchy of needs
Each person’s hierarchy compares the strength of their traits to their other traits, not to other people
press
the situation
what determines if a need is activated according to Murray?
the press
Raymond Cattell
- Argued that psychologists should not begin with a preconceived list of personality traits
- Believed that many personality traits are related
factor analysis
the statistical technique used by Cattell in an attempt to discover the structure of the human personality
limitation of factor analysis
the procedure is confined by the type of data chosen for analysis
source traits
the basic traits that make up the human personality
how many traits did Cattell identify
16 basic traits
what did Cattell develop?
Created a personality test called the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF), a measure that provides scores for each of the source traits
1949 veterans study
conducted extensive personality assessments of 128 men who had been admitted into the Veteran Adminstration’s clinical psychology training program and found that there were five basic personality factors
what were the five factors Fiske found?
- Social adaptability (talkative, makes good company)
- Emotional control (easily upset, has sustained anxieties)
- Conformity (ready to cooperate, conscientious)
- The inquiring intellect (intellectual curiosity, an exploring mind)
- Confident self-expression (cheerful, not selfish)
Fiske’s findings today
foreshadowed the direction personality research would take
the Big Five
five basic dimensions of personality that many different teams of researchers have found evidence for
neuroticism
places people along a continuum according to their emotional stability and personal adjustment
high in neuroticism
frequently experiences emotional distress and wide swings in emotions
low in neuroticism
calm, well-adjusted, and not prone to extreme emotional reactions
negative emotional states across situations
People who are prone to one kind of negative emotional state often experience others
extraversion
places people on a continuum according to their level of sociability
high in extraversion
sociable, energetic, optimistic, friendly, and assertive
low in extraversion
reserved, independent, even-paced
extraverts vs. introverts’ friendships
Extraverts have more friends and spend more time in social situations
openness
places people on a continuum along their level of openness to experience
high in openness
an active imagination, a willingness to consider new ideas, divergent thinking, and intellectual curiosity
low in openness
prefer the familiar rather than seeking out something new
intelligence and openness
Some researchers refer to it as intellect, but it isn’t the same thing as intelligence
agreeableness
places people on a continuum according to their levels of softheartedness and trust
high in agreeableness
helpful, trusting, and sympathetic
low in agreeableness
antagonistic and skeptical
agreeableness and social interactions
People high in agreeableness have more pleasant social interactions and fewer quarrelsome exchanges
agreeableness and helping those in need
People high in agreeableness are more likely to help those in need
conscientiousness
places people on a continuum according to their levels of control and self-discipline
high in conscientiousness
organized, plan-oriented, and determined
low in conscientiousness
careless, easily distracted, and undependable
conscientiousness and health
People high in conscientiousness tend to be healthier and live longer than those low in this dimension
ongoing questions related to the big five model
- There is some debate about what the five factors mean; they may simply represent the adjectives available to us in our language
- There is some disagreement about the structure of the five-factor model
- Does our personality change as we age?
- Would psychologists be better off relying on only five main traits instead of the hundreds of smaller traits they now use?
big five and language
Numerous studies indicate that the Big Five does not merely reflect the structure of the English language, but appears to be a universal pattern for describing personality
disagreements of the structure of the five factor model
- Some factor-analytic studies have found evidence for 7, 6, 3, 2, and 1 basic factors
- Different research outcomes might reflect differences in how broadly investigators conceive of personality structure
personality as we age
Our personalities become fairly stable in our 20s and show little signs of changing after age 30
the big five and aging
- Older adults tend to be higher than younger adults in conscientiousness and agreeableness
- People tend to become lower in neuroticism as they move through adulthood
Would psychologists be better off relying on only five main traits instead of the hundreds of smaller traits they now use?
- Examining a specific trait is better for predicting relevant behaviours
- However, using the Big Five can be useful for diagnosing clinical disorders, working with therapy patients, and identifying problematic health behaviours
Mischel’s Criticisms of the Trait Approach
- Trait measures do not predict behaviour well
- There is little evidence for cross-situational consistency
how is behaviour determined?
Both the person and the situation
person-by-situation approach
looking at the relationship among traits, situations, and behaviours
how much variance in behaviour does the personality coefficient account for?
10%
correlation coefficient of personality traits and behaviour
0.3-0.4
Harsthrone & May, 1928 cross-situational consistency study
measured honesty in 23 different ways among more than 8,000 elementary school children and found an average intercorrelation among these measures of only 0.23
personality psychologists’ responses to Mischel’s criticisms
- researchers often fail to produce strong links between traits and behaviour because they don’t measure behaviour correctly
- Researchers may be looking at the wrong traits
- 10% variance is improtant
how do researchers measure behaviour?
- Typical investigations use trait scores to predict only one measure of behaviour, which violates a basic concept in psychological testing
- A behavioural score based on one measure is so low in reliability that it is almost impossible to find a correlation with any test score higher than 0.30 to 0.40
alternative way of measuring behaviour
using aggregate data
Epstein, 1979 aggregate extraversion study
found a significant correlation between extraversion and the number of social contacts initiated over two weeks
Wu & Clark, 2003 aggregate aggression study
found a significant correlation between trait measures of aggression and the number of aggressive acts students performed over the course of two weeks
what traits should we use when looking for a link between traits and behaviour?
A trait is more likely to predict behaviour if it is important for the person
what happens when researchers limit their samples to people for whom the trait is central?
they find significantly higher correlations between trait scores and behaviour
Rosenthal, 1990 aspirin study
found that aspirin significantly reduced the risk of heart attacks with a correlation of around 0.03, which accounted for less than 1% of the variance
what does the Rosenthal aspirin study demonstrate
that 10% of variance is significant
goal of most psychological studies
to account for some of the variance in a relationship
effects of situational variables vs. trait variables
The effects of situational variables are no more important than the effects deemed weak by critics of personality traits
strengths of the trait approach
- Used objective and empirical measures
- Has many practical applications
- Has generated a large amount of research
critcisms of the trait approach
- Does not explain how traits develop or what can be done to help people who have extreme scores
- The lack of an agreed-upon framework
who tends to be high in openness?
Many innovative artists and scientists tend to be high in openness
is it better to know about one’s traits, the situation, or both?
Knowing about personality and the situation is better than having information about only one
the personality coefficient
the correlation between a given trait and behaviour
what is the personality coefficient for most traits?
0.30 to 0.40
the trait approach
Identifies personality characteristics that can be represented along a continuum
how does the trait approach categorize people?
by the extent to which they display a certain trait
Gordon Allport significance
- Brought personality into the mainstream
- Shed light on the significance of traits through a theory of personality development
what types of traits does the nomothetic approach encompass?
common traits
what types of traits does the idiographic approach encompass?
central, cardinal, and secondary traits
Allport’s definition of personality
The dynamic organization within an individual, of those psychophysical systems that determines their characteristic behaviour and thought
Allport on behaviourism
- strongly opposed behaviourism
- argued that humans are not empty vessels
- believed that the stimulus-response description of humans is dehumanizing
what influenced Allport
gestalt psychology
what did gestalt psychology emphasize?
- Wholeness
- Interrelatedness
- Conscious experience
dynamic organization
- personality is constantly changing (experiences change people)
- personality is never something that is; rather, it is always becoming
psychophysical systems
nothing is exclusively mental nor biological; body and mind are fused
What constitutes an adequate theory of personality according to Allport?
1.Personality is contained within the person
2. Views people as filled with variables that contribute to actions
3. Seeks motives for behaviour in the present, not the past
4. Employs units of measure capable of living synthesis
5. Adequately accounts for self-awareness
what is responsible for personality according to Allport?
Internal mechanisms
Allport on motivation
- Normal adults are aware of their motives
- Healthy adult motives are independent of earlier experiences
impact of heredity on the nature of personality
- provides raw materials
- shaped, expanded, or limited by environmental conditions
- emphasis on uniqueness through genetic combinations
the nature of personality over time
- no continuum of personality between childhood and adulthood
- discrete or discontinuous nature of personality
- adult personality is not constrained by early experiences
personality traits
Distinguishing traits that guide behaviour
what influences personality traits?
social, environmental, and cultural factors
the development of a trait
Several factors are involved in the development of a trait
what factors are at play in the development of traits?
early attachment and later social contact
traits and the organization of the world
- People confront the world in terms of their traits
- Traits organize experiences
- People can only respond to the world in terms of their traits
- Traits account for the consistence of human behaviour
trait/situation interaction
Traits can lead to a range of possible behaviours that are activated at varying points within a range according to the demands of the situation
the proprium
All aspects of personality are integrated by an organizing agent
2 types of conscience
must and ought conscience
must conscience
the fear of punishment and obedience
ought conscience
certain things that ought to be obtained and others avoided
what form of conscience is linked to the proprium?
ought conscience
8 steps of the development of the proprium
- bodily self
- self-identity
- self-esteem
- extension of the self
- self-image
- the self as a rational concept
- propriate striving
- adulthood
bodily self
- emerges during the first 3 years of life
- infants become aware of their own existence and distinguish their bodies from objects in the environment
self-identity
- emerges during the first 3 years of life
- children realize that their identity remains intact despite the many changes that are taking place
self-esteem
- emerges during the first 3 years of life
- children learn to take pride in their accomplishments
extension of the self
- emerges from ages 4-5
- children come to recognize the objects and people that are part of their own world
self-image
- emerges from ages 4-5
- children develop actual and idealized images of themselves and their behaviour and become aware of satisfying (or failing to satisfy) parental expectations
self as a rational coper
- emerges from ages 6-12
- children begin to apply reason and logic to the solution of everyday problems
propriate striving
- emerges during adolescence
- young people begin to formulate long-range goals and plans
adulthood
- normal, mature adults are functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives
- they function rationally in the present and consciously create their own lifestyles
focus of psychoanalytic theory vs. trait theory
psychoanalytic theory focuses on the past and the trait approach focuses on the present
trait theorists on the prevalence of particular traits
all people possess certain traits, but that the degree to which a given trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified
what aproach did Allport employ?
idiographic
function of personality for Cattell
predicting what people will do in a given situation
what kind of approach did Cattell emply?
nomothetic
use of the 16 PF today
is widely used to determine if someone will be a good fit for a job
Hans Eysenck
- Used factor analysis to identify patterns of traits
- Found that personality could be best described in terms of just three major dimensions
Eysenck’s 3 traits
- psychoticism
- extraversion
- neuroticism
(PEN)
Psychoticism
the degree to which reality is distorted
Extraversion
the degree of sociability
neuroticism
encompasses emotional stability
benefit of Eysnck’s approach
Eysenck has been able to predict behaviour accurately in a variety of situations
adjectives assocaited with psychoticism
- aggressive
- cold
- egocentric
- impersonal
- impulsive
adjectives associated with extraversion
- sociable
- lively
- active
- assetive
- sensation-seeking
adjectives associated with neuroticism
- anxious
- depressed
- feelings of guilt
- low self-esteem
- tense
what is the most influential trait approach over the last two decades?
the big five
how did researchers develop the big five?
modern factor analysis
personology
a combination of psychoanalytic and trait concept
needs (murray)
basic elements of personality
Viscerogenic needs
physiological needs like food and water
psychogenic needs
readiness to respond in a certain way under certain conditions
how are psychogenic needs activated?
cues in the environment
what kinds of needs did murray focus on?
psychogenic needs
murray’s main contributions to personality
- Thematic Apprecption Test (TAT)
- Stimulated extensive research on psychogenic needs
murray’s principles
- Personality is rooted in the brain. The individual’s cerebral physiology guides and governs every aspect of the personality
- Tension reduction: people act to reduce physiological and psychological tension, but this does not mean we strive for a tension-free state
- An individual’s personality continues to develop over time: it is constructed of all of the events that occur during the course of that person’s life
- Personality changes and progresses; it is not fixed or static
- Each person is unique. However, there are similarities among all people
why does murray believe personality is rooted in the brain?
- Certain drugs can alter the functioning of the brain, and the personality
- Everything on which personality depends exists in the brain, including feeling states, conscious and unconscious memories, beliefs, attitudes, fears, and values
what state of tension is most satisyfing for murray?
It is the process of acting to reduce tension that is satisfying, not the attainment of a condition free of tension
murray on a tension-free existence
- Murray believed that a tension-free existence is itself a source of distress
- We need excitement, activity, and movement
- We generate tension to have the satisfaction of reducing it
- We must have a certain level of tension to reduce
murray on the past
the study of a person’s past is of great importance because it constructs their personality
abasement
- to submit passively to external forces
- to accept injury, blame, criticism, and punishment
- to admit inferiority, error, wrongdoing, or defeat
- to blame, belittle, or mutilate the self
- to seek and enjoy pain, punishment, illness, and misfortune
acheivement
- to accomplish something diffiuclt
- to master, manipulate, or organize physical objects, human beings, or ideas
- to overcome obstacles and attain a high standard
- to rival and surpass others
affiliation
- to draw near and enjoyable cooperate or reciprocate with an allied other who resembles one or who likes one
- to adhere and remain loyal to a freind
aggression
- to overcome opposition forcefully
- to fight, attack, injure, or kill another
- to maliciously belittle, censure, or ridicule another
autonomy
- to get free, shake off restraint, or break out of confinement
- to resist coercion and restriction
- to be independent and free to act according to impulse
- to defy conventions
counteraction
- to master or make up for failure by restriving
- to overcome weaknesses and to repress fear
- to search for obstacles and difficulties to overcome
- to maintain self-respect and pride on a high level
defendance
- to defend the self against assault, criticism, and blame
- to conceal or justify a misdeed, failure, or humnilation
deference
- to admire and support a superior other
- to yield eagerly to the influence of an allied other
- to conform to custom
dominance
- to control one’s enviornment
- to influence or direct the behaviour of others by suggestion. seduction, persuasion, or command
- to get others to cooperate
- to convince another of the rightness of one’s opinion
exhibition
- to make an impression
- to be seen and heard
- to excite, amaze, fascinate, entertain, shock, intrigue, amuse or entice others
hamavoidance
- to avoid pain, physical injury, illness, and death
- to escape from a dangerous situation
- to take precautionary measures
infavoidance
- to avoid humilation
- to quit embarassing situations or to avoid conditions that may lead to the scorn, derision, or indifference of others
- to refrain from action because of fear of failure
nurturance
- to give sympathy to and gratify the needs of a helpless other, an infant, or one who is weak. disabled, tired, inexperienced, infirm, humiliated, lonely, dejected, or mentally confused
order
- to put things in order
- to acheive clealiness, arrangement, organization, balance, neatness, and precision
play
- to act for fun, without further purpose
rejection
- to exclude, abandon, epel, or remain indifferent to an inferior other
- to snub or jily another
sex
- to seek and enjoy sensuous impressions
sentience
- to seek and enjoy sensuous impressions
succorance
- to be nursed, supported, sustained, surrounded, protected, loved, advised, guided, indulged, forgiven, or consoled
- to remain close to a devoted protector
understanding
- to be inclined to analyze events and to generalize
- to discuss and argue and to emphasize reason and logic
- to state one’s opinions precisely
- to show interest in abstract formulations in science, math, and philosophy
