Chapter 6: The Neo-Freudians: Relevant Research Flashcards
what does current data suggest about anxiety?
that we may have entered an age of anxiety
anxiety overtime
Anxiety scores have been rising steadily since the 1950s
anxiety in american children
By the 1980s, the average American child reported higher levels of anxiety than child psychiatric patients in the 1950s
anxiety in american college students
Nearly ⅙ of college students today is diagnosed or treated for an anxiety disorder
Freud’s 3 types of anxiety
- reality anxiety
- neurotic anxiety
- moral anxiety
reality/objective anxiety
a response to a perceived threat in the real world
what form of anxiety are we usually aware of?
reality anxiety
neurotic anxiety
experienced when unacceptable id impulses are dangerously close to breaking into consciousness
what type of anxiety leads the ego to defence mechanisms?
neurotic anxiety
moral anxiety
brought about by the superego in response to id impulses that violate the superego’s strict moral code
what form of anxiety is experienced as guilt?
moral anxiety
horney on anxiety
neurotic coping strategies are said to develop in an effort to reduce and avoid anxiety
coping strategies
conscious efforts to cope with anxiety in the face of a perceived threat
coping strategies vs. defence mechanisms
defence mechanisms are unconscious, while coping strategies are conscious
who reports using more coping strategies?
women
do men really use fewer coping strategies than women?
it is unclear if this difference is real or reflects a difference in recall
coping style
a person’s general approach to dealing with stress
repression-sensitization
a personality dimension that divides those who take an active role to deal with the problem and those who try to avoid the problem
repressors
people who try not to think about the situation and are thereby avoiding the anxiety as much as possible
sensitizors
people who deal with a stressful situation by finding out as much as possible and putting themselves in a position to take the most effective action
subclassification of sensitizors
These strategies can be further separated into those aimed at the source of the stress and those aimed as the emotional reaction to the stress
three basic ways of dealing with anxiety
- problem-focused strategies
- emotion-focused strategies
- avoidance strategies
problem-focused strategies
intended to take care of the problem, thereby overcoming the anxiety
emotion-focused strategies
designed to reduce the emotional distress that accompanies the problem
avoidance strategies
deal with anxiety by pushing the anxiety-provoking situation out of awareness
prevalence of active strategies
People use an emotion-focused, problem-focused, or both in 98% of cases
men vs. women’s coping strategies
Men are more likely than women to use problem-focused approaches while women are more likely to use emotion-focused strategies than men
what coping strategy is best?
- Using some kind of coping strategy is better than using no strategy
- Using an active strategy is more effective than using an avoidance strategy
- If a means to resolve a situation is available, a problem-focused approach is best
- When a situation can’t be changed, an emotion-focused response is best
efficacy of avoidance coping strategies
- Avoidance strategies are rarely successful in reducing anxiety
- Investigators found long-term consequences from extensive reliance on avoidance strategies
- They may be helpful in the short-term
long-term consequences of excessive reliance on avoidance strategies
- Adults who used avoidance strategies to cope with adolescent bullying continued to turn to these strategies in adulthood
- People who rely on avoidance strategies may be more vulnerable to stress-related health problems
coping flexibility
the ability to effectively utilize different coping strategies
variation in coping flexibility
coping flexibility varies like other personality dimensions
advantages of being high in coping flexibility
- Those who readily adjust their coping strategies to fit a situation are likely to deal with problems more effectively than those who don’t
- Those who were higher in coping flexibility experienced less stress following traumas
- Those who were higher in coping flexibility tend to have a higher sense of well-being
resilience
those who are able to function well at work and in their personal relationships despite loss and trauma
advantages of being high in resiliency
- Highly resilient people tend to be optimistic, have higher self-esteem, and generally maintain positive emotions
- Resilient people have built-in tools for dealing with stress before trauma strikes
social support and coping
Social support can be a source of both emotion-focused and problem-focused coping
Freud on aggression
aggression is the result of our death instinct (Thanatos). We all have an instinctual desire to destroy ourselves, but the ego won’t let this happen, so the desire is turned outward toward others
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
states that aggression is always a consequence of frustration
frustation-anger hypothesis on catharsis
Aggression ceases when we experience catharsis
catharsis
the release of a tension
indirect frustration-aggression hypothesis
Frustration can sometimes lead to indirect expressions of aggression, which can be expressed in many ways
how is indirect aggression displayed according to the indirect frustration-aggression hypothesis?
- displacement
- attacking the source of the frustration in an indirect manner
- sublimation
frustration people and aggression
Frustrated people act more aggressively than non-frustrated people
frustration vs. aggression in children study
classmates identified as the most aggressive were also children who experienced the highest levels of stress and frustration at home
frustration vs. aggression in fired employees study
adults who had been laid off their jobs were 6x more likely to engage in acts of violence
frustration vs. aggression in people waiting in line study
had investigators cut people in line at either the front or the back. Found that highly frustrated people towards the front of the line expressed more aggression than less frustrated people toward the end
updated frustration-aggression hypothesis
Frustration is just one negative emotion that increases aggression. Things that frustrate us are unpleasant and it is that unpleasantness that we respond to
what factors can make people more hostile and aggressive
Uncomfortably high temperatures, irritating cigarette smoke, loud noise, and consuming a bitter-tasting drink
advantages of the updated-frustration hypothesis
- It explains why frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression
- It clarifies why certain thoughts increase or decrease the likelihood of acting aggressively
displaced anger
directing our frustration-induced anger toward someone who doesn’t deserve it
why do we displace anger?
Expressing aggression toward an indirect target is usually safer
displaced anger and anagrams study
experimental participants were told to work on anagrams while a confederate persistently annoyed them. Control participants worked without interruption. They were then told to give another person a painful shock, either the confederate who had been annoying them or a stranger. Researchers found that people displaced their anger onto the innocent bystander
displaced anger and supervisors study
measured the amount of frustration supervisors experienced at work and found that the more frustrated supervisors were, the more those working directly below them felt abused by their supervisor. Those who felt more abused by their supervisors were more likely to behave unpleasantly toward their family members
triggered displacement aggression
occurs when a minor inconvenience that we would otherwise easily tolerate results in one displacing their aggression toward a convenient target
effect of catharsis on aggression
Catharsis has the tendency to increase aggression
catharsis and essay-writing study
participants who wrote essays that received harsh criticism were more aggressive if they were given the chance to hit a punching bag while thinking of their insulter, compared to those who was calmly alone without punching anything
Why does catharsis increase aggression?
- Acting aggressively may lead to a kind of disinhibition
- Observing our own aggression and aggressive cues may spur us into more aggression
- Cathartic release feels good, so aggressive acts may be reinforced
object relations theory
Postulates that children develop an unconscious representation of significant objects in their environment (ex. caregivers)
what does objects relations theory emphasize?
early childhood experiences
what theory did object relations theory springboard?
attachment theory
attachment theory
argues that different parent-infant relationships have long-term implications for a child’s ability to enter into relationships later in life
3 types of parent-child relationships identified by Ainsworth
- secure attachment
- anxious-ambivalent attachment
- avoidant attchment
secure attachment in parent-child relationships
caregivers are attentive and responsive to their child. Children understand that their caregiver is responsive, even when not physically present. These children tend to be happy and self-confident
anxious-ambivalent attachment in parent-child relationships
caregivers are not particularly responsive to their child. Children are anxious when the caregiver leaves and are not easily calmed by other adults. These children are afraid of unfamiliar situations
avoidant attachment in parent-child relationships
caregivers are not particularly responsive to their child. Children respond by developing aloofness and emotional detachment. They do not become anxious when the caregiver returns and are not particularly interested in their attention
secure childrens’ view of relationships
Children who have caring, attentive, and responsive parents come to see relationships as sources of love and support
unsecure childrens’ view of relationships
If needs for attachment aren’t met in childhood, we become suspicious and distrusting
the three category attachment model
divides people into the following 3 attachment styles:
1. secure attachment
2. avoidant attachment
3. anxious-ambivalent attachment
secure attachment style in adults
people who find it relatively easy to get close to others and don’t worry about being abandoned or getting too close to someone
avoidant attachment style in adults
people who are somewhat uncomfortable being close to others and find it difficult to trust them completely and depend on them
anxious-ambivalent attachment style in adults
people who find that others are reluctant to get as close to them as they would like
prevalence of three attachment styles in adults
Approximately 59% of Americans are securely attached, 25% are avoidantly attached, 11% are anxiously attached, and 5% are unclassifiable
prevalence of three attachment styles in infants vs. adults
The percentage of adults who fall into these categories matches quite closely those found by development psychologists who calculate the number of secure, avoidant, and anxious-avoidant infants
secure adults in childhood
Secure adults are more likely than others to describe positive relationships with parents and a warm family environment
anxious-ambivalent people in childhood
Anxious-ambivalent people are more likely to recall little parental support
avoidant people in childhood
Avoidant people are more likely to describe their parents’ marriage as unhappy and describe their relationships with family members as distrustful and emotionally distant
longitudinal attachment style studies
Longitudinal studies demonstrate that a mother’s interaction style predicts the romantic attachment style of adults 2 decades later quite well
four category atatchment model
Measures people on two dimensions: fear of abandonment & fear of closeness
fear of abandonment
the extent to which people are fearful that their romantic partner will abandon them
what does a fear of abandonment reflect
This reflect the person’s internalized feelings of self-worth
fear of closeness
the extent to which people are fearful of dependency and trust
disoriented/fearful attachment style
those who see themselves as unworthy of love and doubt that romantic involvement will provide needed intimacy
what are the four attachment styles according to the four category model?
- secure attachment
- avoidant attachment
- anxious-ambivalent attachment
- disoriented/fearful attachment
low fear of abandonment and closeness
secure attachment
high fear of abandonment and low fear of closeness
anxious-ambivalent
low fear of abandonment and high fear of closeness
avoidant attachment
high fear of abandonment & closeness
disoriented/fearful attachment
which attachment theory model does recent research prefer?
the four category model
what types of people are most satisfied with romantic relationships?
- those with a secure attachment style
- those with a partner with a secure attachment style
what kinds of partners do securely attached people tend to have?
securely attached partners
divorce & relationship satisfaction in secure vs. avoidant adults
found that secure adults had a long history of stable and satisfying relationships compared to those with avoidant attachment styles. They were also much less likely to have gotten a divorce than those with avoidant attachment styles
Why are relationships with secure adults better?
- People who are securely attached are more likely to characterize their current relationship has having love, commitment, and trust
- Secure individuals accept and support their partner despite their faults
- Conversations between secure partners tend to be warmer and more intimate
- Secure adults are more likely to share personal information when appropriate
Why are relationships with avoidant adults more difficult?
- They are hampered by a fear of intimacy and feelings of jealousy
- They tend to believe that real romance rarely lasts forever
- They are less likely to show affection or share intimacy with their partners
- They tend to criticize their partners, particularly when they feel threatened
- They are less likely to recognize their partner’s efforts to be attentive and responsive
- They may be more vulnerable to cheating
Why are relationships with anxious-ambivalent adults more difficult?
- They are afraid of losing their partner and are quick to give in to their wishes in an attempt to keep them happy
- They are more likely to fall in love with someone who doesn’t love them in return
- They are less likely to break up with a partner who fails to meet their needs
when are the effects of attachment styles most likely to surface?
when couples face stress
stress and attachment style study
when couples were asked to discuss an unresolved issue between them for 15 minutes, insecurely attached individuals experienced more physiological indicators of stress
couples leaving each other at an airport and attachment style study
found that secure partners showed signs of closeness when one of them was leaving at an airport, whereas avoidant participants showed signs of pulling away from their partner as the departure approached
avoidant adults and emotional support
Avoidant individuals have difficulty giving and seeking emotional support from their partners when they need it most
is attachment style stable over time?
yes
is it possible to change attachment style?
yes, it may be possible for people to change their attachment style when they enter a secure, long-lasting adult relationship
anxiety
an unpleasant emotional experience
what forms of anxiety are we not conscious of?
neurotic anxiety & moral anxiety
benefits of emotional involvement
it can lead to a rich, healthy, psychological life (falling in love, committing, family, fear, anger, etc.)
disturbing events and emotional reactions
disturbing events have the capacity to turn off emotional reactions
Koriat et al., 1972 study
showed people workplace safety videos and asked them to what degree they used various coping strategies. Found that many used detachment strategies
involvement strategies
relating a situation to one’s own experiences
detachment strategies
using Freud’s coping strategies to diminish anxiety
what did people in the Koriat study who used denial say?
“It’s only a film.”
what did people in the Koriat study who used intellectualization do?
Focus on the technical aspects.
goals and aggression
the closer you are to your goal, the more likely you are to be aggressive
