Chapter 7 - Cultural Transformation 1450-1750

Question 1

What caused the Protestant Reformation?

Answer 1

Corruption in the Catholic Church, including selling indulgences, luxurious life of the popes –> movements challenging Church authority.

Question 2

How did Martin Luther’s actions create conflict?

Answer 2

His 95 Theses criticized Church practices, luxurious life of popes, corruption, etc. –> leading to a schism within Christianity and wars like the Thirty Years’ War.

Question 3

Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

Answer 3

• Catholics vs Protestants
• most of Europe involved
• massive destruction, especially in Germany (15%-30% of population perished)

Question 4

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Answer 4

• ended 30-year War
• established principles of state sovereignty and religious tolerance (somewhat)

State Sovereignty = independent nation-states: Each ruler within the Holy Roman Empire was granted sovereignty over their territory, allowing them to govern without external interference.

religious tolerance somewhat - the ruler of a state could determine its official religion; minority faiths could practice privately

Question 5

How did the Counter-Reformation (Catholics) respond to Protestantism?

Answer 5

Council of Trent:
- reaffirmation of the (same) practices
- education and supervision of priests
- censorship of books
- exile and burning of heretics (heretic = in this case those who protests the mainstream/catholic religion)

Question 6

What does Taki Onqoy (Peru) tell us about Indigenous resistance to Christianity?

Answer 6

Taki Onqoy rejected Christian influence by advocating for a revival of native Andean spiritual traditions

Question 7

Reasons for indigenous resistance to Christianity in South America:

Answer 7

-Forced conversion, aggressive destruction of shrines and idols
-women who were previously shamans/priests did not have corresponding role in catholic church

Question 8

Jesuits in China

Answer 8

• Focused on converting Chinese elites by blending into local culture.
• Downplayed their missionary goals and showed tolerance toward Confucian and Buddhist practices.
• Early 18th-century: The Pope’s rejection of cultural accommodations angered the emperor, who saw it as a challenge to his authority.
• Missionaries were expelled, and Christianity was banned

Question 9

Wahhabi Islam

Answer 9

• return to orthodox Islam
• destruction of idols
• hashish, tobacco, musical instruments forbidden
• strict monotheism (one god)

Question 10

How did Wang Yangming’s ideas challenge orthodox Confucianism?

Answer 10

He emphasized intuitive moral knowledge over rigid adherence to Confucian texts.

(Similar to Protestants’ calls for personal scripture interpretation)

Question 11

Kaozheng movement (China)

Answer 11

Like Europe’s Scientific Revolution, Kaozheng focused on empirical (facts) evidence and challenged traditional knowledge.

Question 12

How did Mirabai’s poetry reflect broader tensions in Indian society?

Answer 12

Her devotion to Krishna challenged caste and gender norms (not burning herself after her husband death), devoted to Lord Krishna, expressing love through poetry and song, emphasizing love and devotion over societal roles

Question 13

How did Sikhism emerge? (India)

Answer 13

Tensions between Hindus and Muslims –> Sikhism –> blending elements of both while promoting unity.

(ended caste distinctions, ended seclusion of women, men and women equality, dress code for men)

Question 14

Scientific Revolution

Answer 14

• Shift from reliance on religious and ancient texts to empirical (facts) observation and experimentation
• Key figures: Copernicus (heliocentric theory), Galileo (telescope, astronomy), Newton (laws of motion, gravity)
• Advancements in the scientific method, emphasizing observation, hypothesis, and experimentation
• Challenged traditional views of the universe and human nature (–> conflicts with church!)
• Led to major developments in physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry

Question 15

Why catholic church’s opposed the new scientific findings?

Answer 15

• New scientific discoveries contradicted Church teachings (e.g., earth center of the universe)
• Threatened the Church’s authority and control over knowledge
• Scientific ideas seen as heretical, leading to persecution (e.g., Galileo’s trial)

Question 16

How did Copernicus’ heliocentric theory conflict with medieval worldviews?

Nicolaus Copernicus (Poland)

Answer 16

Heliocentrism - Sun in the middle of the universe

Church taught the earth was stationary (not rotating) and center of the universe

Question 17

Galileo Galilei (Italy)

Answer 17

• Pioneered the use of the telescope for astronomical observations
• Supported the heliocentric theory (Earth orbits the Sun) proposed by Copernicus
• Discovered moons of Jupiter, sunspots, and phases of Venus, providing evidence for heliocentrism
• Faced trial by the Catholic Church for heresy and was forced to recant his views
• Known as the “father of modern science” for his contributions to physics and astronomy

Question 18

Sir Isaac Newton (England)

Answer 18

• he formulated the modern laws of motion and mechanics
  –> revolutionary understanding of the universe - no supernatural forces but universe is functioning on its own according to scientific principles

Question 19

How did the Enlightenment challenge traditional power structures?

Answer 19

It promoted ideas of equality, democracy, and secular governance, leading to clashes with monarchies and churches.

Question 20

Who was Voltaire and what he believed in?

Answer 20

French writer

believed in Deity as a clock master - God created word but did not intervene with people or tampered with natural laws

Question 21

Philosopher Marguis de Condorcet - What was his main argument?

Answer 21

He argued for universal rights, education, and equality (men and women), directly opposing entrenched aristocratic and clerical power.

Question 22

Which enlightenment figure did NOT believe in equality between men and women?

Answer 22

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (France)

According to Rousseau, women are fundamentally different from and inferior to men and needed to rely on men for their well-being because they were less rational than men

Question 23

Examples of religious syncretism

Answer 23

Sikhism (Successful Syncretism)
- Hinduism and Islam, South Asia

Haiti, Cuba, Brazil (successful syncretism
- west African traditions and Christianity

The Jesuit in China (Mixed Success)

Wahhabi Movement (Failure of Syncretism)
- strict form of Sunni Islam that rejected syncretic practices.

Catholic Reformers (Resistance to Syncretism):
- Catholic leaders in Europe and the Americas resisted syncretism, aiming to maintain orthodox doctrine during the Counter-Reformation (16th-17th century).
-Americas - Efforts included condemning indigenous religious practices and promoting European Catholic rituals over local beliefs.

Question 24

How did the printing press amplify conflicts during the Reformation?

Answer 24

It spread Martin Luther’s ideas rapidly, fueling religious debates and uprisings.

Question 25

How did Baroque art connect to the Counter-Reformation?

Answer 25

It used dramatic imagery to inspire faith and counteract Protestant critiques of Catholic excess.

Question 26

How were Newton’s laws used beyond physics?

Answer 26

Enlightenment thinkers applied them to social and political theories, promoting natural rights and governance by reason.

Question 27

What similarities existed between Wang Yangming (China) and Protestant reformers?

Answer 27

Both emphasized individual moral insight or scripture interpretation over institutional authority.

Question 28

How did Jesuits in China and Taki Onqoy (Peru) handle cultural conflict differently?

Answer 28

Jesuits sought integration, while Taki Onqoy outright rejected foreign influence.

Question 29

How did Baroque art differed from Renaissance art?

Answer 29

Baroque art dramatized Catholic values during the Counter-Reformation, while Renaissance art celebrated secular humanism.

Question 30

Main Difference Catholics vs Protestants

Religious Authority:
Pope:
Salvation
Bible:
Worship:

Answer 30

Catholics vs Protestants

Religious Authority: Pope vs *The Bible**
Pope: ultimate authority vs no authority
Salvation: faith and sacraments vs faith alone
Bible: interpreted by priests vs personal interpretation
Worship: formal service, prominent role of saints and Mary vs simpler service, priests can marry, Mary and saints less prominent

Question 31

Role of women - comparison

Sikhism

Protestantism

Catholicism

Wahhabi Islam

Answer 31

Sikhism: Emphasized gender equality, educational opportunities for women, and their active participation in religious and social life.

Protestantism: Encouraged education and literacy for women, though formal roles in religious leadership were still limited.

Catholicism: Women had some opportunities for education, particularly within convents, but were generally confined to traditional domestic roles and had limited access to public life.

Wahhabi Islam: Had the most restrictive views on women’s roles, education, and rights, with women largely confined to domestic roles and restricted from public participation.

Question 32

Main reasons for Christianity expansion

Answer 32

• Colonial settlers and traders (who brought their religion with them)
• massive work of missionaries (note: missionaries were more successful in illiterate areas, like in south America)

Question 33

Why did the breakthrough of the science revolution first occur in Europe?

Answer 33

Autonomy of its universities with significant study of nature (not just religion) (they became neutral zones of intellectual autonomy, in which scholars could pursue their studies in relative freedom form church and state authorities)

Question 34

How does Scientific Revolution connects to Enlightenment movement?

Answer 34

The Scientific Revolution’s focus on reason and evidence laid the foundation for Enlightenment thinkers to challenge traditional authority, apply rational thought to politics and society, and promote progress and human rights.