Chapter 7 Flashcards
learning
- the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner
- based on experience, produces changes in the organism, these changes are relatively permanent
habituation
a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding
sensitization
a simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus
classical conditioning
- a type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response
- foundation for a model for human behavior
- can involve some degree of cognition
unconditioned stimulus (US)
something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
unconditioned response (UR)
a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus
Pavlov’s experiments
- involved cradling dogs in a harness to administer food and measure their salivary response
- study of classical conditioning
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US
conditioned response (CR)
a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus
acquisition
the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together
second-order conditioning
conditioning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure
extinction
the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US
spontaneous recovery
the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period
generalization
the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition
discrimination
the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli
biological preparedness
a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others
cerebellum plays an important role in _____________, whereas the amygdala is important for ______________.
- Eyeblink conditioning
2. Fear conditioning
evolutionary aspects of classical conditioning
- each species is biologically predisposed to acquire particular CS-US associations
- has adaptive value
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future
- complex behaviors are shaped through reinforcement
- contingencies between actions and outcomes are critical in determining how an organism’s behaviors will be displayed
Law of Effect
behaviors that are followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” tend to be repeated and those that produce an “unpleasant state of affairs” are less likely to be repeated
operant behavior
behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment
reinforcer
any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
- primary reinforcers help satisfy biological needs (ex. food, comfort, shelter, warmth)
- secondary reinforcers derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning (ex. flashing lights become associated with a speeding ticket and a fine)
punisher
any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
fixed-interval schedule (FI)
an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcers are presented at fixed-time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made
(ex. kids cram for exams only as time for exam comes up)
variable-interval schedule (VI)
an operant conditioning principle in which behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement
(ex. promotions/giveaways on radio stations)
fixed-ratio schedule (FR)
an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made
(ex. one schedule occurs after every 4th response)
variable-ratio schedule (VR)
an operant conditioning principle in which the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses
(ex. slot machines are determined by random number generator)
intermittent reinforcement
an operant conditioning principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement
intermittent reinforcement effect
the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement
shaping
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior
latent learning
something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future
cognitive map
a mental representation of the physical features of the environment
major pleasure centers in the brain
nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and hypothalamus
observational learning
a condition in which learning takes place by watching the actions of others
- based on cognitive mechanisms (attention, perception, memory, reasoning)
- activates mirror neuron system
diffusion chain
a process in which individuals initially learn a behavior by observing another individual perform that behavior, and then serve as a model from which other individuals learn the behavior
implicit learning
learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition
(ex. habituation, driving a car)
- explicit learning can become implicit but both use distinct neural pathways
Implicit vs Explicit learning
- there are fewer individual differences in implicit learning
- psychotic and amnesic patients with explicit learning problems can exhibit intact implicit learning
- neuroimaging studies show that implicit and explicit learning recruit distinct brain structures
In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce
a. a neutral stimulus
b. a conditioned response
c. an unconditioned response
d. another conditioned stimulus
b. a conditioned response
What occurs when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus?
a. generalization
b. spontaneous recovery
c. extinction
d. acquisition
c. extinction
What did Watson and Rayner seek to demonstrate about behaviorism through the Little Albert experiment?
a. conditioning involves a degree of cognition
b. classical conditioning has an evolutionary component
c. behaviorism alone cannot explain human behavior
d. even sophisticated behaviors such as emotion are subject to classical conditioning
d. even sophisticated behaviors such as emotion are subject to classical conditioning
Which part of the brain is involved in the classical conditioning of fear?
a. the amygdala
b. the cerebellum
c. the hippocampus
d. the hypothalamus
a. the amygdala
After having a bad experience with a particular type of food, people can develop a lifelong aversion to the food. This suggests that conditioning has a(n) ____ aspect.
a. cognitive
b. evolutionary
c. neural
d. behavioral
b. evolutionary
Which of the following is NOT an accurate statement concerning operant conditioning?
a. actions and outcomes are critical to operant conditioning
b. operant conditioning involves the reinforcement of behavior
c. complex behaviors cannot be accounted for by operant conditioning
d. operant conditioning has associative mechanisms with roots in evolutionary behavior
c. complex behaviors cannot be accounted for by operant conditioning
Which of the following mechanisms have no role in Skinner’s approach to behavior?
a. cognitive
b. neural
c. evolutionary
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Latent learning provides evidence for a cognitive element in operant conditioning because
a. it occurs without any obvious reinforcement
b. it requires both positive and negative reinforcement
c. it points toward the operation of a neural reward center
d. it depends on a stimulus-response relationship
a. it occurs without any obvious reinforcement
Activity of neurons in the _____ contributes to the process of reinforcement.
a. hippocampus
b. pituitary gland
c. medial forebrain bundle
d. parietal lobe
c. medial forebrain bundle
Which of the following mechanisms does NOT help form the basis of observational learning?
a. attention
b. perception
c. punishment
d. memory
c. punishment
Neural research indicates that observational learning is closely tied to brain areas that are involved in
a. memory
b. vision
c. action
d. emotion
c. action
What kind of learning takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition?
a. latent learning
b. implicit learning
c. observational learning
d. conscious learning
b. implicit learning
The process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding is called
a. habituation
b. explicit learning
c. serial reaction time
d. delay conditioning
a. habituation
Which of the following statements about implicit learning is inaccurate?
a. Some forms of learning start out explicitly but become more implicit over time.
b. Implicit learning occurs even in the simplest of organisms.
c. People with high scores on intelligence tests are more adept at implicit learning tasks.
d. Children learn language and social conduct largely through implicit learning.
c. People with high scores on intelligence tests are more adept at implicit learning tasks.
Responding to implicit instructions results in decreased brain activation in which part of the brain?
a. the hippocampus
b. the parietal cortex
c. the prefrontal cortex
d. the occipital region
d. the occipital region
Which study strategy has been shown to be the most effective?
a. highlighting text
b. rereading
c. summarizing
d. taking practice tests
d. taking practice tests
