Chapter 2

Question 1

Empiricism

Answer 1

the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation

Question 2

Scientific method

Answer 2

a procedure for finding truth by using empirical evidence

Question 3

What are the steps of the scientific method?

Answer 3

1. Guess
2. Make a specific prediction
3. Compare results to nature
4. See if the results match the guess or not
5. Communicate the results

Question 4

Theory

Answer 4

a hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon

Question 5

Rule of Parsimony

Answer 5

states that the simplest theory that explains all the evidence is the best one; followed by scientists when developing a theory

Question 6

Hypothesis

Answer 6

a falsifiable prediction made by a theory

Question 7

Empirical method

Answer 7

a set of rules and techniques for observation

Question 8

Operational definition

Answer 8

a description of a property in concrete, measurable terms

Question 9

Instrument

Answer 9

anything that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers; a good one has reliability and power

Question 10

Validity

Answer 10

the goodness with which a concrete event defines a property; most important feature of an operational definition

Question 11

Reliability

Answer 11

the tendency for an instrument to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing

Question 12

Power

Answer 12

an instrument’s ability to detect small magnitudes of the property

Question 13

Demand characteristics

Answer 13

those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects

Question 14

Naturalistic observation

Answer 14

a technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments

Question 15

Double-blind observation

Answer 15

an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed

Question 16

Frequency distribution

Answer 16

the most common graphical representation of measurements arranged by the number of times each measurement was made; bell curve usually for normal distribution

Question 17

Standard deviation

Answer 17

a statistic that describes the average difference between the measurements in a frequency distribution and the mean of that distribution

Question 18

Variable

Answer 18

a property whose value can vary across individuals or over time

Question 19

Correlation

Answer 19

2 variables are said to be “correlated” when variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other

Question 20

Correlation coefficient

Answer 20

a mathematical measure of both the direction and strength of a correlation, which is symbolized by the letter “r”

Question 21

Natural correlations

Answer 21

the correlations observed in the world around us

Question 22

Third-variable correlation

Answer 22

2 variables are correlated only because each is casually related to a third variable

Question 23

Matched samples

Answer 23

a technique whereby the participants in 2 groups are identical in terms of a 3rd variable

Question 24

Matched pairs technique

Answer 24

a technique whereby each participant is identical to one other participant in terms of a 3rd variable

Question 25

Third-variable problem

Answer 25

the fact that a causal relationship between 2 variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of 3rd-variable correlation

Question 26

Experiment

Answer 26

a technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables

Question 27

What are the 2 key features of an experiment?

Answer 27

1. Manipulation: changing a variable in order to determine its causal power 2. Random Assignment: procedure that lets chance assign people to the experimental or control group

Question 28

Experimentation involves 3 critical steps, explain.

Answer 28

1. Perform manipulation (independent variable, experimental group, control group) 2. Measure another variable (dependent variable) 3. Look to see whether manipulation of independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable

Question 29

Self-selection

Answer 29

problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he/she will be included in the experimental or control group

Question 30

Inferential statistics

Answer 30

tells scientists what kinds of conclusions/influences they can draw from observed differences between the experimental and control groups

Question 31

Internal validity

Answer 31

an attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships

Question 32

External validity

Answer 32

an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way

Question 33

Population

Answer 33

a complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured

Question 34

Sample

Answer 34

a partial collection of people drawn from a population

Question 35

Case method

Answer 35

a procedure for gathering scientific info by studying a single individual

Question 36

Random sampling

Answer 36

a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample; serves as a "representative" of the population

Question 37

What are some important rules that govern the conduct of psychological research?

Answer 37

Informed consent, freedom from coercion, protection from harm, risk-benefit analysis, deception, debriefing, confidentiality

Question 38

The belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation is a. parsimony b. dogmatism c. empiricism d. scientific research

Answer 38

c. empiricism

Question 39

Which of the following is the best definition of a hypothesis? a. empirical evidence b. a scientific investigation c. a falsifiable prediction d. a theoretical idea

Answer 39

c. a falsifiable prediction

Question 40

The methods of psychological investigation take ____ into account because when people know they are being studied, they don't always behave as they otherwise would. a. reactivity b. complexity c. variability d. sophistication

Answer 40

a. reactivity

Question 41

When a measure produces the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing, it is said to have a. validity b. reliability c. power d. concreteness

Answer 41

b. reliability

Question 42

Aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should are called a. observer biases b. reactive conditions c. natural habitats d. demand characteristics

Answer 42

d. demand characteristics

Question 43

In a double-blind observation a. the participants know what is being measured b. people are observed in their natural environments c. the purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed d. only objective, statistical measures are recorded

Answer 43

c. the purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed

Question 44

Which of the following describes the average value of all the measurements in a particular distribution? a. mean b. median c. mode d. range

Answer 44

a. mean

Question 45

What does a correlation coefficient show? a. the value of one specific value b. the direction and strength of a correlation c. the efficiency of a relevant research method d. the degree of natural correlation

Answer 45

b. the direction and strength of a correlation

Question 46

When two variables are correlated, what keeps us from concluding that one is the cause and the other is the effect? a. the possibility of third-variable correlation b. random assignment of control groups c. the existence of false-positive correlation d. correlation strength is impossible to measure accurately

Answer 46

a. the possibility of third-variable correlation

Question 47

A researcher administers a questionnaire concerning attitudes toward global warming to people of both genders and of all ages who live all across the country. The dependent variable in the study is the ____ of the participants. a. age b. gender c. attitudes toward global warming d. geographic location

Answer 47

c. attitudes toward global warming

Question 48

The characteristic of an experiment that allows conclusions about causal relationships to be drawn is called a. external validity b. internal validity c. random assignment d. self-selection

Answer 48

b. internal validity

Question 49

An experiment that operationally defines variables in a realistic way is said to be a. externally valid b. controlled c. operationally defined d. statistically significant

Answer 49

a. externally valid

Question 50

Research suggests that people are usually a. open to seeing both sides of an issue b. able to reason without emotion c. able to arrive at conclusions based solely on facts d. none of the above

Answer 50

d. none of the above

Question 51

When people find evidence that confirms their beliefs, they often a. tend to stop looking b. seek evidence that disconfirms their conclusions c. seek evidence that presents both sides d. talk to their colleagues

Answer 51

a. tend to stop looking

Question 52

What are psychologists ethically required to do when reporting research results? a. to report findings truthfully b. to share credit for research c. to make data available for further research d. all of the above

Answer 52

d. all of the above