Chapter 2 Flashcards
Empiricism
the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation
Scientific method
a procedure for finding truth by using empirical evidence
What are the steps of the scientific method?
- Guess
- Make a specific prediction
- Compare results to nature
- See if the results match the guess or not
- Communicate the results
Theory
a hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon
Rule of Parsimony
states that the simplest theory that explains all the evidence is the best one; followed by scientists when developing a theory
Hypothesis
a falsifiable prediction made by a theory
Empirical method
a set of rules and techniques for observation
Operational definition
a description of a property in concrete, measurable terms
Instrument
anything that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers; a good one has reliability and power
Validity
the goodness with which a concrete event defines a property; most important feature of an operational definition
Reliability
the tendency for an instrument to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing
Power
an instrument’s ability to detect small magnitudes of the property
Demand characteristics
those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects
Naturalistic observation
a technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments
Double-blind observation
an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed
Frequency distribution
the most common graphical representation of measurements arranged by the number of times each measurement was made; bell curve usually for normal distribution
Standard deviation
a statistic that describes the average difference between the measurements in a frequency distribution and the mean of that distribution
Variable
a property whose value can vary across individuals or over time
Correlation
2 variables are said to be “correlated” when variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other
Correlation coefficient
a mathematical measure of both the direction and strength of a correlation, which is symbolized by the letter “r”
Natural correlations
the correlations observed in the world around us
Third-variable correlation
2 variables are correlated only because each is casually related to a third variable
Matched samples
a technique whereby the participants in 2 groups are identical in terms of a 3rd variable
Matched pairs technique
a technique whereby each participant is identical to one other participant in terms of a 3rd variable
Third-variable problem
the fact that a causal relationship between 2 variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of 3rd-variable correlation
Experiment
a technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
What are the 2 key features of an experiment?
- Manipulation: changing a variable in order to determine its causal power
- Random Assignment: procedure that lets chance assign people to the experimental or control group
Experimentation involves 3 critical steps, explain.
- Perform manipulation (independent variable, experimental group, control group)
- Measure another variable (dependent variable)
- Look to see whether manipulation of independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable
Self-selection
problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he/she will be included in the experimental or control group
Inferential statistics
tells scientists what kinds of conclusions/influences they can draw from observed differences between the experimental and control groups
Internal validity
an attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships
External validity
an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way
Population
a complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured
Sample
a partial collection of people drawn from a population
Case method
a procedure for gathering scientific info by studying a single individual
Random sampling
a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample; serves as a “representative” of the population
What are some important rules that govern the conduct of psychological research?
Informed consent, freedom from coercion, protection from harm, risk-benefit analysis, deception, debriefing, confidentiality
The belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation is
a. parsimony
b. dogmatism
c. empiricism
d. scientific research
c. empiricism
Which of the following is the best definition of a hypothesis?
a. empirical evidence
b. a scientific investigation
c. a falsifiable prediction
d. a theoretical idea
c. a falsifiable prediction
The methods of psychological investigation take ____ into account because when people know they are being studied, they don’t always behave as they otherwise would.
a. reactivity
b. complexity
c. variability
d. sophistication
a. reactivity
When a measure produces the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing, it is said to have
a. validity
b. reliability
c. power
d. concreteness
b. reliability
Aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should are called
a. observer biases
b. reactive conditions
c. natural habitats
d. demand characteristics
d. demand characteristics
In a double-blind observation
a. the participants know what is being measured
b. people are observed in their natural environments
c. the purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed
d. only objective, statistical measures are recorded
c. the purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed
Which of the following describes the average value of all the measurements in a particular distribution?
a. mean
b. median
c. mode
d. range
a. mean
What does a correlation coefficient show?
a. the value of one specific value
b. the direction and strength of a correlation
c. the efficiency of a relevant research method
d. the degree of natural correlation
b. the direction and strength of a correlation
When two variables are correlated, what keeps us from concluding that one is the cause and the other is the effect?
a. the possibility of third-variable correlation
b. random assignment of control groups
c. the existence of false-positive correlation
d. correlation strength is impossible to measure accurately
a. the possibility of third-variable correlation
A researcher administers a questionnaire concerning attitudes toward global warming to people of both genders and of all ages who live all across the country. The dependent variable in the study is the ____ of the participants.
a. age
b. gender
c. attitudes toward global warming
d. geographic location
c. attitudes toward global warming
The characteristic of an experiment that allows conclusions about causal relationships to be drawn is called
a. external validity
b. internal validity
c. random assignment
d. self-selection
b. internal validity
An experiment that operationally defines variables in a realistic way is said to be
a. externally valid
b. controlled
c. operationally defined
d. statistically significant
a. externally valid
Research suggests that people are usually
a. open to seeing both sides of an issue
b. able to reason without emotion
c. able to arrive at conclusions based solely on facts
d. none of the above
d. none of the above
When people find evidence that confirms their beliefs, they often
a. tend to stop looking
b. seek evidence that disconfirms their conclusions
c. seek evidence that presents both sides
d. talk to their colleagues
a. tend to stop looking
What are psychologists ethically required to do when reporting research results?
a. to report findings truthfully
b. to share credit for research
c. to make data available for further research
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
