Chapter 6: Part 1 Human Systems Flashcards
What is negative feedback?
- mechanism by which the body the keeps a variable stable, maintaining homeostasis
What is homeostasis?
- Tendency to maintain a constant, internal environment (equilibrium)
What are the 3 components of Homeostasis?
1) Sensor: Detects change in internal environment
2) Effector: brings condition back to normal
3) Control Center: activates effector based on sensory information
What are macromolecules?
- macromolecules are large complex organic molecules
What is an organic molecule?
- Molecules that contains C bonded to H and other atoms like O, S and N
What are the 4 classes of macromolecules?
1) Carbohydrate
2) Lipids (fat)
3) Proteins
4) Nucleic Acids
Are macromolecules polymers? Why or why not?
- They are polymers (poly=many)
- Long molecules formed by linking small similar subunits (monomers) together
ex) A-A-A-A , linking railroad cars to form a train
What are the 2 processes of complex macromolecules?
1) Dehydration Synthesis (lose water)
2) Hydrolysis (gain water)
Explain what is and the process of Dehydration Synthesis
- Assembling
- chemical reaction that BUILDS macromolecules
( A+B —> AB + H2O)
Process: - 2 smaller molecules are joined together by removing H2O molecule
- OH- from one subunit and H+ from the other subunit
- requires enzyme to speed up the reaction
- “Anabolic” reaction (smaller —> large)
What is hydrolysis? What is the process
- chemical reaction that BREAKS down macromolecules into their subunits by adding H2O
Process: - H+ from water is attracted to one subunit and the OH- group is bonded to another subunit (breaking a covalent bond in the macromolecule)
- AB + H2O —> A+ B
- requires enzymes
- “Catabolic” reaction (larger than—> smaller)
Match the processes:
Catabolic reaction, Anabolic reaction, Hydrolysis, Dehydration Synthesis
Anabolic reaction = Dehydration Synthesis
Catabolic reaction = Hydrolysis
What is an example of a subunit of Carbohydrates?
- sugars (such as glucose)
- polymers of glucose
What is a main function of carbohydrates
- energy storage
what is an example of a macromolecule in carbohydrates
- sugars
- starches
- glycogen
Examples of subunits in Lipids
- glycerol and three fatty acids
- glycerol with two fatty acids
What is the main function of Lipids
- energy storage
- cell membranes
- transport blood
What is an example of macromolecules in Lipids
- fats
- oils
- phospholipids
What are examples of subunits in proteins?
-polymers of amino acids
What are the main functions of proteins
- clotting
- support
- immunity
- catalysis
- muscle action
what are example of macromolecules in proteins
- hemoglobin
- fibrin
- collagen
- antibodies
- enzymes
- actin
- myosin
What are subunits for Nucleic acid
- polymers of nucleotides
what is the main function of nucleic acid
- transfer and expression of genetic information
Examples of macromolecules in Nucleic Acid
- DNA and RNA
What molecules are in carbohydrates? to what ratio?
- C: H:O
- 1: 2: 1
How is carbohydrates made?
- produced by photosynthesis
What are the types of carbohydrates?
1) Simple Sugar
a. monosaccharides
b. disaccharides
2) Complex Sugar
a. polysaccharides
What is a monosaccharide
- Simple sugar (mono=1)
ex) glucose, fructose, galactose, all C6H12O6 - Can have 3-7 C’s or pentose (5C)
What does isomers mean
- same molecular formula, different structural formula
- so different chemical properties (same chemical amount but different arrangement)
What is a disaccharide
- a simple sugar as well
- 2 monosaccharides joined together by dehydration synthesis
what are 3 important disaccharides ?
1) malt sugar/ honey = glucose + glucose
2) lactose = glucose + galactose
3) sucrose = glucose + fructose
What are the 3 important monosaccharides
1) glucose
2) fructose
3) galactose
What are polysaccharides and examples and their roles
- Complex carb - many linked simple sugar
ex) glycogen, starch, cellulose
Roles of each:
1) glycogen - storage form of carbs in animals
2) starch - storage form of carbs in starch
3) cellulose - in plants (insoluble fibre in plant cell walls)
What are lipids and their functions
- diverse group of macromolecules
- contains C-H-O
- Non-polar (equal sharing of electrons) makes them all insoluble in water
- glycerol = 3 carbon chain
- 3 fatty acids
FUNCTION:
fats and oils - long term energy storage molecules
-Phospholipid - cell membranes - Steroids - sex hormones, estrogen and testosterone
Explain saturation for lipids
Saturated: only single C-C bonds, maximum amount of H’s making it very stable
Unsaturated: has double C=C or triple C bonds (C =_C) , easier to breakdown
What are 2 types of lipids
1) Fats
- solid
-Long saturated fatty acids
- carries cholesterol
2) Oils
- liquid
- short unsaturated fatty acids
- no cholesterol
- usually in plants
Difference between saturated and unsaturated
1) saturated
- C-C only single bonds
- saturated with H bonded ti the maximum # of H atoms
- Fat is solid at RT
- In animals
- Associated in cardiovascular **
- diseases
2) Unsaturated
- C=C double bonds
- not saturated with H- not bonded to the maximum # of H Fat us liquid at RT
- Plant
-Healthier choice
What are proteins
- C, H, O, N, S
- produced by ribosomes
- make up most cellular structures
- Most abundant organic molecule
- energy is not a main function
What are the functions of proteins
- Transport = hemoglobin (O2 carrying molecule in blood)
- Blood clotting = fibrin
- Support = collagen
- Immunity = antibodies
- Catalysts - enzymes
- Muscle Action = actin and myosin
- Chemical messengers = some hormones
What is the subunit of proteins and why is it important?
- subunits are amino acids
- the R-group is unique to each amino acid
- makes 20 amino acids in total in the body ( body makes 11, 9 from diet)
- amino acids are bonded together in long chains to form proteins (by dehydration synthesis)
What is the bond between amino acids called?
- peptide bond
What happens to attraction and repulsion of R-groups in amino acids
- charged R-groups attract water (outside of protein - enzymes, hemoglobin)
- uncharged R-groups repelled by water (outside of protein - Keratin in fingernails)
What are nucleic acids?
- contain the chemical code that directs growth and development
- transfer and expression of genetic information
- consists of long chains if linked subunits called nucleotides
- Subunits contain Phosphate, five-carbon sugar, nitrogen containing base
2 types:
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid - contains genes , information needed to build the cell
RNA: ribonucleic acid - involved in making protein
What are vitamins
- organic compounds that often helps enzymes function
- small amounts needed by body fir tissue development, growth, and resistance tissue disease
- vitamins are COENZYMES - chemicals needed to make enzymes function
What are minerals
- inorganic compounds
- small amounts needed for body
- help some chemical reaction to happen
- help build bones/cartilages
- readily absorbed into bloodstream
- essential parts of molecules such as hemoglobin, hormones, enzymes, and vitamins
What are enzymes
- protein catalysts
- have specific “substrates” = molecule on which an enzyme works ex) lactase —> lactose
- have an active site to which substrate attaches
- they are reusable (do not get consumed)
- may be assisted by coenzymes (vitamins) to help bind substrates or cofactors (from inorganic minerals)
- identified by the suffix - “ase” which is added to the name of the substrate (the molecule on which the enzyme works) ex. carbohydrases break down carbohydrates
What is denatured in enzymes?
- high temperature proteins lose their 3D shapes and can no longer carry out their functions
What are factors that affect enzymes?
- temperature
- pH
- substrate molecule concentration
- inhibitors (something that stops it)
What does temperature do with enzymes
- may help increase enzyme activity
- but high temps may cause the enzyme to be denatured
What are examples of pH’s of enzymes in specific places in the body
- each enzyme has their desired pH level to work functionally
ex) stomach = 2
mouth = 7
intestine = 8
What are substrate concentration?
- reactions occur faster with more substrate until mac speed and concentration reached
What are competitive inhibitors
- interferes with active site of enzyme so substrate cannot bind
What is a feedback inhibitor?
- when the competitive inhibitor is often the end product of the enzymatic reaction. As more end product is created and binds to the active site, enzyme activity is inhibited.
what are Non-competitive inhibitors?
- changes shape of enzyme so substrate cannot bind
- inhibitor is attached to the allosteric site changing the shape of the enzyme
What is digestion and ingestion
ingestion- taking in nutrients
digestion - breaking down nutrients
What are the important parts of the mouth?
1) tongue
2) teeth
3) salivary glands
4) pharynx
5) esophagus
6) sphincters. a) esophageal sphincter b) pyloric sphincter
What does the tongue do?
- mechanical digestion
- contains taste buds
- mixed food with saliva to form it into bolus
What does the teeth do?
- mechanical digestion
- creates greater surface area for enzymatic reaction
what do salivary glands do?
- chemical digestion
- produce saliva (1L/day)
- moisten food
*** salivary amylase - breaks down starches into disaccharides
What is salivary amylase?
- breaks down starches into disaccharides
What are pharynx and epiglottis
P - place where nasal and oral cavities meet. *** Last place where digestion is voluntary
E - covers trachea (wind pipe) when food is swallowed.
What is the esophagus
- pushes the bolus toward the stomach
- uses peristalsis which is smooth muscle contraction
What is sphincters and the different types
- it controls the passage way of materials with smooth circular muscle
1. Esophageal Sphincter: controls the opening from the ESOPHAGUS to STOMACH
2. Pyloric Sphincter: controls the opening from the STOMACH to SMALL INTESTINES
What type of digestion happens in the stomach: mechanical or chemical?
- both
- mechanical: churns food
- chemical: releases enzymes
What is rugae? where is it found
- found in the inner folds of the stomach lining
- increases surface area for reactions
what protects the stomach from acids going into the stomach
mucus
What are gastric juices and what do they include
- include H2O, mucus, salts, enzyme, HCl )hydrochloric acid)
- they help kill bacteria and soften food
what is the pH of the stomach and why
- 1-3
- the acidic environment helps breakdown food and with digestion
What enzyme break down proteins in the stomach?
- pepsinogen (inactive) when it comes in contact with HCl it becomes pepsin (active)
- breaks down proteins into polypeptides
what is chyme
- thick liquid made in the stomach after peristalsis pushes the food to the bottom of the stomach churning it and mixing with gastric juice
- churned food + gastric juice = chyme
What is gastric juice responsible for
- chemical digestion in the stomach
What is bile?
- emulsify fats (cause it to form tiny globules)
- those globules have large surface area: to volume ratio so that lipase (enzymes for fats) can work with them more effectively
where is bile made and stored
- made: liver
- stored: gall bladder
what triggers bile to be released
- when the chyme in the duodenum stimulates the gallbladder it releases the bile
what is found in the surface of small intestines
- villi (microscopic is microvilli)
- increases the surface area of absorption
most absorption takes place in the ____
small intestine
which macromolecules are actively transported in the villi
- glucose(carbohydrate) and amino acids(protein) are actively transported and sent to the blood vessels
what macromolecules are transported through diffusion in the villi of the small intestine
- fats (glycerol and 3 fatty acids)
- they diffuse into the intestinal wall and resynthesized into fats then get coated with proteins
- eventually going to the lymph vessels
what happens when acidic chyme arrives in the small intestine
- duodenum secretes SECRETIN, CCK (cholecystokinin), and GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide)
- these hormones decrease stomach contractions so no additional chyme can enter the stomach until previous one is digested
what is the colon
- main function is to eliminate waste
- absorbs water
- includes nutrients/vitamins (B-12 and K)
what are protections of the stomach (3)
- does not secrete gastric juices until food is present
- secretes mucus which prevents gastric juice from harming the inside of the stomach
- produces a protein digesting enzyme (pepsin) which only becomes active when HCl is present
what is are the function of small intestine
- complete digestion of macromolecules
- absorb macromolecules subunits
what are the parts of the small intestine
- duodenum
- 30 cm
- u shaped
- shortest but widest of them all
- physical digestion occurs and chemical digestion - jejunum
- continues to break down food - ileum
- contains smaller villis
- absorbs remaining nutrients then pushes undigested materials into the large intestine
which part of the small intestine pushes undigested materials into the large intestine
- ileum
What are pancreas
- deliver 1L of pancreatic fluid to the duodenum each day
- contains ENZYME
- has bicarbonate which helps neutralize HCl in the stomach
- pH of 8
like:
1. pancreatic amylase - carbohydrate
2. trypsin and chymotrypsin - for proteins
3. lipase - fats
what is the main function of the respiratory system
- to ensure that O2 is brought to each cell in the body
- CO2 is removed from cells and body
What does the upper respiratory tract include
- nostrils
- nasal passages
- pharynx
- glottis
- larynx
- trachea
what does the lower respiratory tract include
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- lungs
- alveoli
what are alveolis? why are they effective?
- tiny clusters located at the end of bronchioles
- they are the site of gas exchange
They are effective because:
1. they are enclosed by a single celled membrane
2. surrounded by capillaries (blood vessels)
3. membranes kept moist by a lubricating substance called surfactant
what prevents bad particles in the respiratory system
- cillia: traps pathogens
- mucus: moisten air and trap pathogens
- coughing: forces the particles out of the
What is external and internal respiration
external: exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood
internal: exchange of gases between the blood and cells
how does air go in and out of the lungs
- due air pressure
1. diaphragm located in the floor id the thoracic cavity
2. rib muscles (intercostal muscles)
what happens to the 2 components during inhalation and exhalation
inhale:
1. rib muscle contract causing the ribs to form up and out
2. diaphragm contracts going down
exhale:
1. ribs relax and move down
2. diaphragm relax and moves up
what is a Spirograph
- represents the amount of air that mo es into and out of the lungs with each breathe
