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Bio 20 > Chapter 6: Part 1 Human Systems > Flashcards

Chapter 6: Part 1 Human Systems Flashcards

1
Q

What is negative feedback?

A
  • mechanism by which the body the keeps a variable stable, maintaining homeostasis
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2
Q

What is homeostasis?

A
  • Tendency to maintain a constant, internal environment (equilibrium)
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3
Q

What are the 3 components of Homeostasis?

A

1) Sensor: Detects change in internal environment
2) Effector: brings condition back to normal
3) Control Center: activates effector based on sensory information

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4
Q

What are macromolecules?

A
  • macromolecules are large complex organic molecules
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5
Q

What is an organic molecule?

A
  • Molecules that contains C bonded to H and other atoms like O, S and N
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6
Q

What are the 4 classes of macromolecules?

A

1) Carbohydrate
2) Lipids (fat)
3) Proteins
4) Nucleic Acids

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7
Q

Are macromolecules polymers? Why or why not?

A
  • They are polymers (poly=many)
  • Long molecules formed by linking small similar subunits (monomers) together
    ex) A-A-A-A , linking railroad cars to form a train
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8
Q

What are the 2 processes of complex macromolecules?

A

1) Dehydration Synthesis (lose water)
2) Hydrolysis (gain water)

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9
Q

Explain what is and the process of Dehydration Synthesis

A
  • Assembling
  • chemical reaction that BUILDS macromolecules
    ( A+B —> AB + H2O)
    Process:
  • 2 smaller molecules are joined together by removing H2O molecule
  • OH- from one subunit and H+ from the other subunit
  • requires enzyme to speed up the reaction
  • “Anabolic” reaction (smaller —> large)
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10
Q

What is hydrolysis? What is the process

A
  • chemical reaction that BREAKS down macromolecules into their subunits by adding H2O
    Process:
  • H+ from water is attracted to one subunit and the OH- group is bonded to another subunit (breaking a covalent bond in the macromolecule)
  • AB + H2O —> A+ B
  • requires enzymes
  • “Catabolic” reaction (larger than—> smaller)
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11
Q

Match the processes:
Catabolic reaction, Anabolic reaction, Hydrolysis, Dehydration Synthesis

A

Anabolic reaction = Dehydration Synthesis
Catabolic reaction = Hydrolysis

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12
Q

What is an example of a subunit of Carbohydrates?

A
  • sugars (such as glucose)
  • polymers of glucose
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13
Q

What is a main function of carbohydrates

A
  • energy storage
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14
Q

what is an example of a macromolecule in carbohydrates

A
  • sugars
  • starches
  • glycogen
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15
Q

Examples of subunits in Lipids

A
  • glycerol and three fatty acids
  • glycerol with two fatty acids
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16
Q

What is the main function of Lipids

A
  • energy storage
  • cell membranes
  • transport blood
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17
Q

What is an example of macromolecules in Lipids

A
  • fats
  • oils
  • phospholipids
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18
Q

What are examples of subunits in proteins?

A

-polymers of amino acids

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19
Q

What are the main functions of proteins

A
  • clotting
  • support
  • immunity
  • catalysis
  • muscle action
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20
Q

what are example of macromolecules in proteins

A
  • hemoglobin
  • fibrin
  • collagen
  • antibodies
  • enzymes
  • actin
  • myosin
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21
Q

What are subunits for Nucleic acid

A
  • polymers of nucleotides
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22
Q

what is the main function of nucleic acid

A
  • transfer and expression of genetic information
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23
Q

Examples of macromolecules in Nucleic Acid

A
  • DNA and RNA
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24
Q

What molecules are in carbohydrates? to what ratio?

A
  • C: H:O
  • 1: 2: 1
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25
Q

How is carbohydrates made?

A
  • produced by photosynthesis
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26
Q

What are the types of carbohydrates?

A

1) Simple Sugar
a. monosaccharides
b. disaccharides
2) Complex Sugar
a. polysaccharides

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27
Q

What is a monosaccharide

A
  • Simple sugar (mono=1)
    ex) glucose, fructose, galactose, all C6H12O6
  • Can have 3-7 C’s or pentose (5C)
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28
Q

What does isomers mean

A
  • same molecular formula, different structural formula
  • so different chemical properties (same chemical amount but different arrangement)
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29
Q

What is a disaccharide

A
  • a simple sugar as well
  • 2 monosaccharides joined together by dehydration synthesis
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30
Q

what are 3 important disaccharides ?

A

1) malt sugar/ honey = glucose + glucose
2) lactose = glucose + galactose
3) sucrose = glucose + fructose

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31
Q

What are the 3 important monosaccharides

A

1) glucose
2) fructose
3) galactose

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32
Q

What are polysaccharides and examples and their roles

A
  • Complex carb - many linked simple sugar
    ex) glycogen, starch, cellulose
    Roles of each:
    1) glycogen - storage form of carbs in animals
    2) starch - storage form of carbs in starch
    3) cellulose - in plants (insoluble fibre in plant cell walls)
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33
Q

What are lipids and their functions

A
  • diverse group of macromolecules
  • contains C-H-O
  • Non-polar (equal sharing of electrons) makes them all insoluble in water
  • glycerol = 3 carbon chain
  • 3 fatty acids
    FUNCTION:
    fats and oils - long term energy storage molecules
    -Phospholipid - cell membranes
  • Steroids - sex hormones, estrogen and testosterone
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34
Q

Explain saturation for lipids

A

Saturated: only single C-C bonds, maximum amount of H’s making it very stable
Unsaturated: has double C=C or triple C bonds (C =_C) , easier to breakdown

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35
Q

What are 2 types of lipids

A

1) Fats
- solid
-Long saturated fatty acids
- carries cholesterol
2) Oils
- liquid
- short unsaturated fatty acids
- no cholesterol
- usually in plants

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36
Q

Difference between saturated and unsaturated

A

1) saturated
- C-C only single bonds
- saturated with H bonded ti the maximum # of H atoms
- Fat is solid at RT
- In animals
- Associated in cardiovascular **
- diseases
2) Unsaturated
- C=C double bonds
- not saturated with H- not bonded to the maximum # of H Fat us liquid at RT
- Plant
-Healthier choice

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37
Q

What are proteins

A
  • C, H, O, N, S
  • produced by ribosomes
  • make up most cellular structures
  • Most abundant organic molecule
  • energy is not a main function
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38
Q

What are the functions of proteins

A
  • Transport = hemoglobin (O2 carrying molecule in blood)
  • Blood clotting = fibrin
  • Support = collagen
  • Immunity = antibodies
  • Catalysts - enzymes
  • Muscle Action = actin and myosin
  • Chemical messengers = some hormones
39
Q

What is the subunit of proteins and why is it important?

A
  • subunits are amino acids
  • the R-group is unique to each amino acid
  • makes 20 amino acids in total in the body ( body makes 11, 9 from diet)
  • amino acids are bonded together in long chains to form proteins (by dehydration synthesis)
40
Q

What is the bond between amino acids called?

A
  • peptide bond
41
Q

What happens to attraction and repulsion of R-groups in amino acids

A
  • charged R-groups attract water (outside of protein - enzymes, hemoglobin)
  • uncharged R-groups repelled by water (outside of protein - Keratin in fingernails)
42
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A
  • contain the chemical code that directs growth and development
  • transfer and expression of genetic information
  • consists of long chains if linked subunits called nucleotides
  • Subunits contain Phosphate, five-carbon sugar, nitrogen containing base
    2 types:
    DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
  • contains genes , information needed to build the cell
    RNA: ribonucleic acid
  • involved in making protein
43
Q

What are vitamins

A
  • organic compounds that often helps enzymes function
  • small amounts needed by body fir tissue development, growth, and resistance tissue disease
  • vitamins are COENZYMES - chemicals needed to make enzymes function
44
Q

What are minerals

A
  • inorganic compounds
  • small amounts needed for body
  • help some chemical reaction to happen
  • help build bones/cartilages
  • readily absorbed into bloodstream
  • essential parts of molecules such as hemoglobin, hormones, enzymes, and vitamins
45
Q

What are enzymes

A
  • protein catalysts
  • have specific “substrates” = molecule on which an enzyme works ex) lactase —> lactose
  • have an active site to which substrate attaches
  • they are reusable (do not get consumed)
  • may be assisted by coenzymes (vitamins) to help bind substrates or cofactors (from inorganic minerals)
  • identified by the suffix - “ase” which is added to the name of the substrate (the molecule on which the enzyme works) ex. carbohydrases break down carbohydrates
46
Q

What is denatured in enzymes?

A
  • high temperature proteins lose their 3D shapes and can no longer carry out their functions
47
Q

What are factors that affect enzymes?

A
  • temperature
  • pH
  • substrate molecule concentration
  • inhibitors (something that stops it)
48
Q

What does temperature do with enzymes

A
  • may help increase enzyme activity
  • but high temps may cause the enzyme to be denatured
49
Q

What are examples of pH’s of enzymes in specific places in the body

A
  • each enzyme has their desired pH level to work functionally
    ex) stomach = 2
    mouth = 7
    intestine = 8
50
Q

What are substrate concentration?

A
  • reactions occur faster with more substrate until mac speed and concentration reached
51
Q

What are competitive inhibitors

A
  • interferes with active site of enzyme so substrate cannot bind
52
Q

What is a feedback inhibitor?

A
  • when the competitive inhibitor is often the end product of the enzymatic reaction. As more end product is created and binds to the active site, enzyme activity is inhibited.
53
Q

what are Non-competitive inhibitors?

A
  • changes shape of enzyme so substrate cannot bind
  • inhibitor is attached to the allosteric site changing the shape of the enzyme
54
Q

What is digestion and ingestion

A

ingestion- taking in nutrients
digestion - breaking down nutrients

55
Q

What are the important parts of the mouth?

A

1) tongue
2) teeth
3) salivary glands
4) pharynx
5) esophagus
6) sphincters. a) esophageal sphincter b) pyloric sphincter

56
Q

What does the tongue do?

A
  • mechanical digestion
  • contains taste buds
  • mixed food with saliva to form it into bolus
57
Q

What does the teeth do?

A
  • mechanical digestion
  • creates greater surface area for enzymatic reaction
58
Q

what do salivary glands do?

A
  • chemical digestion
  • produce saliva (1L/day)
  • moisten food
    *** salivary amylase - breaks down starches into disaccharides
59
Q

What is salivary amylase?

A
  • breaks down starches into disaccharides
60
Q

What are pharynx and epiglottis

A

P - place where nasal and oral cavities meet. *** Last place where digestion is voluntary
E - covers trachea (wind pipe) when food is swallowed.

61
Q

What is the esophagus

A
  • pushes the bolus toward the stomach
  • uses peristalsis which is smooth muscle contraction
62
Q

What is sphincters and the different types

A
  • it controls the passage way of materials with smooth circular muscle
    1. Esophageal Sphincter: controls the opening from the ESOPHAGUS to STOMACH
    2. Pyloric Sphincter: controls the opening from the STOMACH to SMALL INTESTINES
63
Q

What type of digestion happens in the stomach: mechanical or chemical?

A
  • both
  • mechanical: churns food
  • chemical: releases enzymes
64
Q

What is rugae? where is it found

A
  • found in the inner folds of the stomach lining
  • increases surface area for reactions
65
Q

what protects the stomach from acids going into the stomach

A

mucus

66
Q

What are gastric juices and what do they include

A
  • include H2O, mucus, salts, enzyme, HCl )hydrochloric acid)
  • they help kill bacteria and soften food
67
Q

what is the pH of the stomach and why

A
  • 1-3
  • the acidic environment helps breakdown food and with digestion
68
Q

What enzyme break down proteins in the stomach?

A
  • pepsinogen (inactive) when it comes in contact with HCl it becomes pepsin (active)
  • breaks down proteins into polypeptides
69
Q

what is chyme

A
  • thick liquid made in the stomach after peristalsis pushes the food to the bottom of the stomach churning it and mixing with gastric juice
  • churned food + gastric juice = chyme
70
Q

What is gastric juice responsible for

A
  • chemical digestion in the stomach
71
Q

What is bile?

A
  • emulsify fats (cause it to form tiny globules)
  • those globules have large surface area: to volume ratio so that lipase (enzymes for fats) can work with them more effectively
72
Q

where is bile made and stored

A
  • made: liver
  • stored: gall bladder
73
Q

what triggers bile to be released

A
  • when the chyme in the duodenum stimulates the gallbladder it releases the bile
74
Q

what is found in the surface of small intestines

A
  • villi (microscopic is microvilli)
  • increases the surface area of absorption
75
Q

most absorption takes place in the ____

A

small intestine

76
Q

which macromolecules are actively transported in the villi

A
  • glucose(carbohydrate) and amino acids(protein) are actively transported and sent to the blood vessels
77
Q

what macromolecules are transported through diffusion in the villi of the small intestine

A
  • fats (glycerol and 3 fatty acids)
  • they diffuse into the intestinal wall and resynthesized into fats then get coated with proteins
  • eventually going to the lymph vessels
78
Q

what happens when acidic chyme arrives in the small intestine

A
  • duodenum secretes SECRETIN, CCK (cholecystokinin), and GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide)
  • these hormones decrease stomach contractions so no additional chyme can enter the stomach until previous one is digested
79
Q

what is the colon

A
  • main function is to eliminate waste
  • absorbs water
  • includes nutrients/vitamins (B-12 and K)
80
Q

what are protections of the stomach (3)

A
  1. does not secrete gastric juices until food is present
  2. secretes mucus which prevents gastric juice from harming the inside of the stomach
  3. produces a protein digesting enzyme (pepsin) which only becomes active when HCl is present
81
Q

what is are the function of small intestine

A
  • complete digestion of macromolecules
  • absorb macromolecules subunits
82
Q

what are the parts of the small intestine

A
  1. duodenum
    - 30 cm
    - u shaped
    - shortest but widest of them all
    - physical digestion occurs and chemical digestion
  2. jejunum
    - continues to break down food
  3. ileum
    - contains smaller villis
    - absorbs remaining nutrients then pushes undigested materials into the large intestine
83
Q

which part of the small intestine pushes undigested materials into the large intestine

A
  • ileum
84
Q

What are pancreas

A
  • deliver 1L of pancreatic fluid to the duodenum each day
  • contains ENZYME
  • has bicarbonate which helps neutralize HCl in the stomach
  • pH of 8
    like:
    1. pancreatic amylase - carbohydrate
    2. trypsin and chymotrypsin - for proteins
    3. lipase - fats
85
Q

what is the main function of the respiratory system

A
  1. to ensure that O2 is brought to each cell in the body
  2. CO2 is removed from cells and body
86
Q

What does the upper respiratory tract include

A
  1. nostrils
  2. nasal passages
  3. pharynx
  4. glottis
  5. larynx
  6. trachea
87
Q

what does the lower respiratory tract include

A
  1. bronchi
  2. bronchioles
  3. lungs
  4. alveoli
88
Q

what are alveolis? why are they effective?

A
  • tiny clusters located at the end of bronchioles
  • they are the site of gas exchange
    They are effective because:
    1. they are enclosed by a single celled membrane
    2. surrounded by capillaries (blood vessels)
    3. membranes kept moist by a lubricating substance called surfactant
89
Q

what prevents bad particles in the respiratory system

A
  1. cillia: traps pathogens
  2. mucus: moisten air and trap pathogens
  3. coughing: forces the particles out of the
90
Q

What is external and internal respiration

A

external: exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood
internal: exchange of gases between the blood and cells

91
Q

how does air go in and out of the lungs

A
  • due air pressure
    1. diaphragm located in the floor id the thoracic cavity
    2. rib muscles (intercostal muscles)
92
Q

what happens to the 2 components during inhalation and exhalation

A

inhale:
1. rib muscle contract causing the ribs to form up and out
2. diaphragm contracts going down

exhale:
1. ribs relax and move down
2. diaphragm relax and moves up

93
Q

what is a Spirograph

A
  • represents the amount of air that mo es into and out of the lungs with each breathe

Bio 20 (8 decks)

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