Chapter 6 Memory Strategies

Question 1

Memory Strategy

Answer 1

You perform mental activity that can help to improve your encoding and retrieval

Question 2

Elaboration

Answer 2

Concentrating on the specific meaning of a particular concept

Relating the concept to prior knowledge and interconnected concepts already mastered

Question 3

Distinctiveness

Answer 3

One memory trace should be different from all other memory traces

Surprising rare to find

Question 4

Rehearsal

Answer 4

Repeating the information you want to learn or remember

Not likely to be as beneficial in terms of accurate recall

Question 5

Self-reference effect

Answer 5

You enchanted long-term memory by relating the material to your own experiences

Question 6

Encoding specificity

Answer 6

Recall is often better if the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time when your retrieval will be tested

Question 7

Total-time hypothesis

Answer 7

The amount you learn depends on the total time you devote to learning

Question 8

Distributed practice effect

Answer 8

You will remember more material if you spread your learning trials over time

Spaced learning Voss. Massed learning

Question 9

Spaced learning

Answer 9

Spread your learning trials over time

Question 10

Massed learning

Answer 10

Learning the material all at once

Question 11

Desirable difficulties

Answer 11

A learning situation that is somewhat challenging but not too difficult

Question 12

The testing effect

Answer 12

Being tested on material also boosts your long-term recall for that material

Question 13

Roediger and Karpicke (2006)

Answer 13

students read essays, testing immediately or after delay, repeated study or intervening test

Question 14

Carpenter, Pashler, and Vul (2006)

Answer 14

tested memory for learned information in short- essay format, then tested again using a multiple- choice format
participants who had taken the test outperformed a study-only control group
Testing increases memory at a later point in time that is transferable across different types of tests and test questions.

Question 15

Mnemonics

Answer 15

Mental strategies designed to improve your memory

ROYGBIV
Never Eat Soggy Waffles

Question 16

Keyword method

Answer 16

You identify an English word (the keyword) that sounds similar to the new word you want to learn

Useful when learning foreign language

Question 17

Familiar location method

Answer 17

Associate the items to be learned with a series of visual images of physical locations
Useful for learning a list of items in a specific order

Question 18

Chunking

Answer 18

Combine several small unites into larger meaningful units

Question 19

Hierarchy technique

Answer 19

Organize items in a series of classes from general to specific

Question 20

External memory aids

Answer 20

Any device, external to yourself, that facilitates your memory in some way

Question 21

First-Letter Technique

Answer 21

Compose a word for sentence using the first letters of the words you are trying to remember

Question 22

Narrative Technique

Answer 22

Make up stories that link a series of words together
Bower and Clark
However you need to be able to generate a narrative easily and reliably during both learning and recall

Question 23

Retrospective memory

Answer 23

Remembering information you acquired in the past

Question 24

Prospective memory

Answer 24

Remembering that you need to do something in the future

Question 25

Absent mindedness and Prospective memory failures

Answer 25

Divided attention
Disrupting a customary activity
Familiar surrounding and automatic tasks
Preoccupation, distraction, time pressure

Question 26

Improving prospective memory

Answer 26

Use mental imagery
Focus on distincitivess
Use external memory aids

Question 27

Comparing prospective and retrospective memory

Answer 27

Prospective memory typically focuses on action.
Retrospective memory is more likely to focus on remembering information and ideas.
Research on prospective memory is more likely to focus on ecological validity.
Both will be more accurate if you use both distinctive encoding and effective retrieval cues.
Both kinds of memories are more accurate when you have a short delay prior to retrieval.
Both rely on the frontal lobe.

Question 28

Memory-Improvement Strategies
Suggestions from previous chapters

Answer 28

Do not divide your attention between several simultaneous tasks.
Keep in mind that your working memory is limited; figure out strategies to overcome this problem.
Process information in terms of its meaning,
When you study, apply the encoding- specificity principle by creating questions for yourself that have the same format as the questions on your exam.
Don’t be overconfident about the accuracy of your memory for events in your life.

Question 29

Memory-Improvement Strategies
Techniques related to practice

Answer 29

The amount you learn depends on the total time that you spend practicing.
You’ll learn more if you spread your learning trials over time (the distributed-practice effect).
You’ll enhance your memory simply by taking
tests on the material.

Question 30

Memory-Improvement Strategies
Mnemonics using imagery

Answer 30

Use imagery, especially imagery that shows an interaction between the items that need to be recalled.
Use the keyword method; for example, if you are learning vocabulary in another language, identify an English word that sounds like the target word, and link the English word with the

Question 31

Memory-Improvement Strategies
Mnemonics using organization

Answer 31

Use chunking by combining isolated items into meaningful units.
Construct a hierarchy by arranging items in a series of categories.
Take the first letter of each item you want to
remember, and compose a word or sentence
from these letters (first-letter technique).

Question 32

Memory-Improvement Strategies
Improving prospective memory

Answer 32

Create a vivid, interactive mental image to prompt future recall.
Create a specific reminder or an external memory aid.

Question 33

Metacognition

Answer 33

Your knowledge and control of your cognitive processes

Supervises the way you select and use your memory strategies
Includes self-knowledge, meta memory, metacomperhension

Question 34

Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus Individual Items

Answer 34

In general, people tend to be overconfident if you ask them to predict their total score on a memory test.
In contrast, people tend to be accurate if you
ask them to predict which individual items they
will remember and which ones they will forget.

Question 35

Foresight Bias

Answer 35

When people overestimate the number of answers that they will supply on a future test

Question 36

Dunning et al (2003)

Answer 36

Had participants estimate of total score after
finishing an exam
less competent students overestimated
performance

Question 37

Estimating Scores Immediately Versus After a Delay

Answer 37

People do not provide accurate memory estimates for individual items, if they make these estimates immediately after learning the items.
In contrast, if they delay their judgments, they are reasonably accurate in predicting which
Delayed judgments are especially likely to provide accurate assessments of memory performance because they assess long-term memory.

Question 38

Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy

Answer 38

Many people lack knowledge of memory strategies.
“All memory strategies are not created equal.”
Students may believe that some factors do have an effect on memory, although these

Question 39

Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies

Answer 39

Need to coordinate memory and decision making
It can be hard to spend more time on the difficult material
Conversely we often spend too much time on things we already know

Question 40

Allocating Time When the Task is Easy
Nelson and Leonesio (1988)

Answer 40

examined how students distribute their study
time when they can study at their own pace Students allocated more study time for the
items that they believed would be difficult to
master.

Students spend longer than necessary studying
items they already know, and not enough time studying the items they have not yet mastered.

Question 41

Allocating Time When the Task is Difficult

Answer 41

This is often harder than the lab tasks we use to study it.
conceptual information not word lists Students have limited study time

Question 42

Son and Metcalfe (2000)

Answer 42

Tested on a series of eight encyclopedia-
style biographies
Only allowed 30 minutes to study Participants ranked the biographies in terms
of difficulty
Students spent the majority of their study
time on the biographies they considered

Question 43

Allocating Time When the Task is Difficult

Answer 43

Other studies also indicated that when facing time pressure, students choose to study material that seems relatively easy to master.
Experts concentrate their time on more challenging material, compared to novices.

Question 44

Tip-of-the-tongue effect

Answer 44

Subjective experience of knowing the target word for which you are searching, but cannot recall it right now; generally an involuntary effect

Question 45

Feeling-of-knowing effect

Answer 45

Subjective experience of know some information, but cannot recall it right now; more conscious experience

Question 46

Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect
Brown and McNeill (1966)

Answer 46

given the definition of an uncommon English
word,and told to try to identify the word when the definition produced a tip-of-the-
tongue phenomenon, try to generate words
with similar sound

Question 47

Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect
Later Research

Answer 47

frequency of occurrence
bilinguals vs. monolinguals
first letter and number of syllables; grammatical gender
tip-of-the-finger

Question 48

Feeling-of-Knowing Effect
More informations

Answer 48

You predict that you could correctly recognize the correct answer to a question
related to the amount of partial information retrieved

Question 49

Tip of the finger effect

Answer 49

The subjective experience of know the target sign, but that sign is temporary inaccessible

Question 50

Metacomperhension

Answer 50

Throught about language comprehension

Question 51

Metacomperhension accuracy in college students

Answer 51

generally are not very accurate in
metacomprehension skills
may not notice inconsistencies or missing information in a passage

believe they have understood something because they are familiar with its general topic
fail to retain specific information
overestimate how they will perform when

Question 52

Metacomprehension Accuracy
Pressley and Ghatala (1988)

Answer 52

reading comprehension using an SAT passage followed by multiple-choice questions
students rated how certain they were that they had answered each question correctly
little difference between estimates on correct

Question 53

Improving Metacomprehension

Answer 53

read and summarize
read a second time