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Cognitive Psychology > Chapter 11 Problem Solving & Creativity > Flashcards

Chapter 11 Problem Solving & Creativity Flashcards

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1
Q

Components of a problem

A

Initial state
Goal state
Obstacles

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2
Q

Problem solving is used

A

When you want to reach a certain goal, but the solution is not immediately obvious
Missing information or obstacles block the path

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3
Q

Understanding the problem

A

Construct a well-organized mental representation of the problem based on the information provided in the problem and previous experience

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4
Q

Paying attention to important information

A

Identify and attend to the most relevant information

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5
Q

Bransford and Stein 1984

A

Algebra story problems
Distracting negative thoughts

Effective problem solvers read the description of a problem very carefully, paying particular attention
to inconsistencies

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6
Q

Symbols

A

Algebra
Translating words into symbols can cause issues
-oversimplification and misremembering the problem

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7
Q

Matrix

A

A grid showing all possible combination of items

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8
Q

Matrices

A

Matrix
Most useful for complex, stable, categorical information

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9
Q

Problem representation

A

The way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format

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10
Q

Visual images

A

Escape boundaries of traditional concrete representations
Good visual-imagery skills provide advantage

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11
Q

Diagrams

A

Instructions for assembling objects
Represent abstract information in a concrete fashion
Reduce large about of complicated information into a concrete form
Hierarchical tree diagram
Graphs

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12
Q

Novick and Morse 2000

A

Origami
Participants were more accurate with both a verbal description and a step-by-step diagram rather than only a verbal description

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13
Q

Hierarchical Tree Diagram

A

A figure that uses a tree like structure to show various possible options in a problem. This kind of diagram is especially helpful in showing the relationship between categorized items

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14
Q

Situated-cognition approach

A

We use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations; importance of external situation/context

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15
Q

Embodied cognition approach

A

We often use our own body and our own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge; importance of own body as context

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16
Q

Situated Cognition

A

Problem solving does not only take place inside a persons head
Real life provides information needed to solve complicated problems
Other people provide information

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17
Q

Embodied Cognition

A

People solve certain kinds of problems more quickly or more accurately if allowed to move parts of their bodies
Mental rotation tasks
Swinging rope problem
Movement of gears problem

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18
Q

Exhaustive search

A

Try all possible answers

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19
Q

Heuristic

A

General rule/strategy in in which you ignore some alternatives and explore only those alternatives that seem especially likely to produce a solution

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20
Q

Analogy approach

A

Using a salutation to a similar, earlier problem to help in solving a new problem

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21
Q

Algorithm

A

A well-defined procedure or set of rules that is used to solve a problem or accomplish a task or they is used for conducting a series of computations
Always produces a solution; sometimes inefficient

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22
Q

The structure of the analogy approach

A

Determining the real problem
Problem isomorphs
Surface features
Structural features

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23
Q

Factors that encourage appropriate use of analogies

A

overcoming the influence of context
trying several structurally similar problems before the target problem
training to sort problems into categories based on structural similarities

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24
Q

Problem isomorphs

A

A set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details

25
Q

Surface features

A

Such as specific objects and terms used in the questions

26
Q

Structural features

A

The underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly

27
Q

The means-ends heuristic important components

A

Divide the problem into sub problems
Try to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the sub problems

28
Q

The means ends heuristic

A

identify the “ends” you want and then figure out the “means” to reach them
one of the most effective and flexible problem- solving strategies

29
Q

Elves and Goblins (Greeno, 1974)

A

People pause at points in the problem when they begin to tackle a subproblem and need to organize a sequence of moves.
Working memory is active during planning.
Sometimes the correct solution requires moving backward, temporarily increasing the distance to the goal.
People are reluctant to move away from goal state.

30
Q

The Means–Ends Heuristic
Computer Simulation

A

involves a computer program that will perform a task the same way that a human would
includes false starts
should be no better (or worse) at solving the problem than a human would be
test by comparing program with the steps humans would take in solving the problem
generality not as great as researchers had wished
real-life problems not so clear cut

31
Q

Computer Simulation
Newell and Simon’s General Problem Solver (GPS)

A

had participants talk out loud while working on a relevant problem
narrative then used to create computer simulations
uses means–ends analysis strategy; difference reduction strategy

32
Q

Computer Simulation
Newell and Simon’s General Problem Solver (GPS)

A

had participants talk out loud while working on a relevant problem
narrative then used to create computer simulations
uses means–ends analysis strategy; difference reduction strategy

33
Q

Anderson’s ACT-R theory

A

computer simulations for problem solving (like Elves and Goblins), algebra, geometry, computer science
developed to learn more about how people acquire skills in problem solving
developed “cognitive tutors” for use in mathematics classes

34
Q

The Hill-Climbing Heuristic

A

When you reach a choice point, choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal

35
Q

Expertise

A

consistent exceptional skill and performance on representative tasks for a particular area

36
Q

Expertise
Problem-Solving Strategies

A

are more likely to use the means–ends heuristic effectively on a novel problem
approach problems systematically
are more likely to emphasize structural features when using the analogy approach

37
Q

Expertise
Speed and Accuracy

A

problem-solving operations become more automatic
parallel processing serial processing

38
Q

Expertise
Knowledge Base

A

knowledge
schemas
training in variety of relevant settings training with immediate feedback

39
Q

Expertise
Memory

A

Memory skills of experts tend to be very specific.
Chess experts’ memory is better only if the information fits a particular schema.
Experts are only slightly better than novices at remembering random arrangements of chess pieces.

40
Q

Expertise
Metacognitive Skills

A

Experts are better than novices at monitoring their own problem solving.
Experts are also better at judging the difficulty of the problem, allocating time, monitoring the usefulness of ideas, recovering from errors.
Experts underestimate the amount of time novices will require to solve a problem in the experts’ area of specialization.

41
Q

Mental Set

A

using the same solution from previous problems, even though the problem could be solved by a different, easier method
close mind prematurely; stop thinking
breaking mental set associated with greater change in event-related brain potentials (ERPs)
overactive top-down processing

42
Q

Fixed mindset

A

You believe that you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and that no amount of effort can help you perform better

43
Q

Growth mindset

A

You believe that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills

44
Q

Functional fixedness

A

We assign stable/fixed uses to an object results in a failure to think about the features of the object that might be useful in helping solve a problem

45
Q

Gender stereotypes and math problems

A

generally not supported by research when it comes to problem solving skills
consistent gender similarities on standardized math tests for students of all ages

46
Q

Stereotype threat

A

If you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype, and you think about your membership in that group, then your performance may suffer

47
Q

Insight problem

A

A problem that seams impossible untill sudden solution appears light bulb aha

48
Q

Non-insight problem

A

A problem that you solve gradually

49
Q

The nature of insight

A

gestalt psychologists vs. behaviorists
begin with inappropriate assumptions that need to be discarded
inappropriate use of top-down processing

50
Q

Advice About Problem Solving
If a problem seems to be an insight problem:

A

try to represent the problem in a different way
think about a different meaning for an ambiguous word
draw sketches, work with physical objects, use gestures
be willing to think “outside the box”

51
Q

Creativity

A

finding solutions that are novel and
useful
Psychologists disagree as to whether creativity involves ordinary thinking or exceptional people

52
Q

Divergent production

A

A measure of creativity in terms of the number of different responses made to a test items

53
Q

Divergent production tests

A

Moderate correlations between divergent production test scores and other judgments of creativity
Number of salutations doesn’t indicate novelty and/or usefulness

54
Q

The nature of creativity

A

Creativity includes convergent thinking as well as divergent thinking. (In contrast, convergent production asks test-takers to supply a single, best response.)
Creativity is associated with many regions within the left hemisphere as well as many regions within the right brain.
Creativity can occur when we use focused attention (conscious attention) as well as defocused attention (altered states of consciousness).

55
Q

Extrinsic motivation

A

Desire to work on a task to earn a promised reward

People often produce less creative projects if they are working on these projects for external reasons.
Creativity can actually be enhanced if the extrinsic factors provide useful feedback

56
Q

Intrinsic motivation

A

Motivation to work on a task for its own sake, because you find it interesting, exciting or personally challenging

People are more likely to to be creative when they are working on a task that they truly enjoy

57
Q

Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity
Ruscio and colleagues (1998)

A

students rate level of interest in writing, art, and problem solving
later perform tasks in the three areas
had judges rate projects
high intrinsic motivation was related to higher judged creativity of projects

58
Q

Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity
Prabhu, Sutton, and Sauser (2008)

A

Slides 811-815

Cognitive Psychology (12 decks)

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