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ISSA S&C > Chapter 6: Bioenergetics > Flashcards

Chapter 6: Bioenergetics Flashcards

1
Q

What is the molecular structure of ATP?

A

Adenine and ribose attached to three phosphates.

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2
Q

How does ATP store and release energy?

A

The two bonds between the three phosphates store energy, and release energy when broken

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3
Q

What is the law that states that energy can be changed from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed?

A

The first law of thermodynamics

Law of conservation of energy

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4
Q

What metabolic reactions are the cornerstone of human physiology?

A

Anabolic: the building process
Catabolic: The breakdown process

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5
Q

What is the enzyme that breaks the bond between the second and third phosphates to release the stored energy?

A

ATPase

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6
Q

What is dephosphorylation?

A

The process of removing a phosphate using water

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7
Q

How many acidic protons are released during the breakdown of ATP to ADP?

A

one

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8
Q

What is rephosphorylation?

A

The process of reattaching or adding a phosphate (Pi)

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9
Q

What enzyme is needed for rephosphorylation?

A

ATP synthase

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10
Q

What’s the process of breaking of ATP while in the presence of water to release energy stored within its bonds?

A

ATP hydrolysis

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11
Q

What is metabolic acidosis? What is it caused by?

A

When ATP hydrolysis causes the muscle to accumulate protons (H+) faster than the muscle can remove them as waste

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12
Q

What is the short-term effect of metabolic acidosis?

A

Impairs muscle power and energy production

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13
Q

What happens to cellular ph during acidosis?

A

It becomes lower

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14
Q

When happens with ADP to AMP?

A

the two remaining phosphate ions in the ADP bond can be used to generate cellular energy

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15
Q

What is the enzyme that converts two ADP into one ATP?

A

adenylate kinase

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16
Q

What is the chemical reaction for AMP to ADP?

A

AMP + Pi + energy

Pi is a phosphate ion

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17
Q

Why is AMP is not an ideal molecule to have in the cells?

A

An accumulation of phosphates can cause muscle fatigue and limit physical performance

It can also break down even further and create ammonia, which is toxic

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18
Q

What’s the advantage of burning a higher percentage of stored fat as fuel?

A

It does not result in cellular acid buildup

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19
Q

What are the 3 energy systems?

A

The phosphagen system
Anaerobic glycolysis
Aerobic glycolysis

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20
Q

What is the phosphagen system?

A

The combination of a muscle’s stored ATP plus its phosphocreatine, used to create up to 30 seconds’ worth of energy

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21
Q

What is the molecule found in muscle and brain tissue that donates its phosphate to ADP to form ATP during the phosphagen system?

A

Phosphocreatine

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22
Q

What is anaerobic glycolysis?

A

Producing ATP from glucose

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23
Q

What us glucose? What is it used for?

A

The smallest molecule a carbohydrate can be broken down into and used as an energy source

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24
Q

What is pyruvate?

A

A three-carbon structure formed by splitting a glucose molecule

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25
Q

Why does anaerobic glycolysis produce a decline in muscle power?

A

From a production of protons (H+) that increase cellular acidity

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26
Q

What is the end product of glycolysis?

A

Lactic acid

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27
Q

What is aerobic glycolysis?

A

The breakdown of fuels to form ATP in the presence of oxygen

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28
Q

What is the gel-like material that makes up all inner components of every cell within the human body?

A

Cytoplasm

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29
Q

What is sarcoplasm?

A

The cytoplasm of a muscle cell

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30
Q

What is the cell nucleus?

A

An organelle that controls a cell and the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

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31
Q

What is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)?

A

A molecule that contains genetic instructions for growth, development, reproduction, and functioning

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32
Q

What’s the only part of the cell that is not considered part of the cytoplasm?

A

The nucleus

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33
Q

What is the chemical structure of phosphocreatine?

A

One phosphate molecule connected to one molecule of creatine

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34
Q

What molecule assists in the re-formation of ATP from ADP?

A

Creatine

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35
Q

How does creatine work?

A

It donates its phosphate to ADP to form ATP

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36
Q

What enzyme that catalyzes ADP to ATP, as well as creatine to phosphocreatine?

A

Creatine kinase

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37
Q

Why is the creatine kinase reaction critical for muscular contraction?

A

It keeps the ATP-ADP cycle running

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38
Q

What happens the longer the creatine kinase reaction runs?

A

More protons will build up in the cytoplasm, reducing the cellular pH of the cell and leading to metabolic acidosis

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39
Q

What is the limitation on the phosphagen system?

A

The supply of phosphocreatine in the body

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40
Q

Where is creatine synthesized?

A

In the kidney, pancreas, and the liver

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41
Q

What does the supplementation of creatine allow?

A

More stored creatine in the cells
complements the phosphagen system

Helps delay muscle fatigue and increase muscular output for short-duration efforts

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42
Q

Why can a more conditioned individual replenish cellular phosphocreatine within 5–10 minutes?

A

They are generally able to take in and use oxygen better than an unconditioned individual

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43
Q

What is the limitation on the replenishment of stored phosphocreatine?

A

The availability of oxygen

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44
Q

What is glycogen?

A

The stored form of glucose in liver and skeletal muscle

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45
Q

What happens when stored glycogen runs low?

A

glucose in the bloodstream is forced into the muscle cells and broken down (aka glycolosis)

46
Q

What processes produce many times more ATP than the phosphagen system?

A

Aerobic or anaerobic glycolysis

47
Q

What are the glyocolytic processes in the absence and presence of oxygen?

A

In the presence of oxygen: oxidative phosphorylation

In the absence of oxygen: anaerobic glycolysis

48
Q

What happens to the glucose molecule during anaerobic glycolosis?

A

Its split into two pyruvate molecules

49
Q

What coenzyme regulates the split between two pyruvate molecules?

A

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)

50
Q

What is the reduced form of NAD+ that necessary for energy production that comes from glycolysis?

A

NADH

51
Q

What causes “muscle burn”?

A

The buildup of lactate and protons when the phosphagen system is phasing into anaerobic metabolism

52
Q

What causes a decrease in muscular output during high intensity activities?

A

The inability to allow enough oxygen to enter the mitochondria for the exercise to be predominantly aerobic

53
Q

What 3 conditions produce larger quantities of lactate?

A
  • Lack of oxygen in the mitochondria
  • Quick increase in exercise intensity
  • Recruitment of type II muscle fibers
54
Q

What are the three primary benefits to the muscles of lactate?

A

acts as a buffer to slow acidosis

cotransporter from the sarcoplasm and the bloodstream, taking a proton along with it

can be transported to the liver and converted back into glucose through the lactic acid cycle

55
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, usually in the liver

56
Q

What is the the preferred source of energy for the cardiac muscles of the heart?

A

lactate

57
Q

What are the conditions under which lactate is used?

A
  • Normal resting heart activity

- Submaximal exercise (~40–60 percent of VO2 max)

58
Q

What happens when intensity is increased to around 55 to 65 percent of a person’s VO2 max?

A

The rate of lactate accumulation exceeds the muscle’s ability to clear it aka the lactate threshold

59
Q

What does the lactate threshold signal?

A

The physiological point where the central nervous system and muscle fibers will be affected by the excess of protons because lactate cannot be buffered

60
Q

What causes lactate to rise, and corresponds with an increase in H+ and blood acidity?

A

Increasing power output (i.e., work rate)

61
Q

What are the by-products of anaerobic glycolysis in cellular energy production?

A

Lactate and H+

62
Q

What happens as acidosis causes an increase in lactate concentration and free protons?

A

Declines in muscular performance and increases in muscle soreness

63
Q

How can acidosis (and the associated muscle soreness) be minimized?

A

With an appropriate recovery intensity between bouts of high-intensity exercise

64
Q

Why is it a light run after a sprint a good idea?

A

Because when recovery is near or at the individual’s lactate threshold, optimal lactate and proton clearance from the sarcoplasm and the blood occurs

65
Q

why is anaerobic glycolysis effective only for high-intensity activities of a relatively short duration?

A

because In the absence of oxygen, only 2 ATP molecules are produced for each molecule of glucose

66
Q

What affects the exact timing of oxidative phosphorylation taking over as the energy system?

A
  • The conditioning of the individual
  • Highly trained athletes can access their aerobic metabolism at full capacity in 60 seconds
  • Unconditioned individuals may take up to 4 minutes to become completely aerobic
67
Q

What is aerobic metabolism?

A

The breakdown of fuels to form ATP in the presence of oxygen

68
Q

What is acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA)?

A

The central metabolite that initiates the aerobic metabolism process within the mitochondria, regardless of fuel source

69
Q

What is the the first stage of aerobic metabolism?

A

The Krebs Cycle

70
Q

What is the metabolic pathway within mitochondria where the majority of ATP molecules are formed during aerobic metabolism?

A

electron transport chain

71
Q

What’s another name for the electron transport chain?

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

72
Q

What are the three reasons mitochondria are essential for maintaining performance?

A

1) They produce ATP during exercise, especially when the activity lasts more than a few minutes
2) During the first 10 to 30 seconds of maximal activity, mitochondria absorb protons (H+)
3) mitochondria help athletes recover more quickly between intermittent bursts of powerful activity

73
Q

How do strength training and cardiovascular training positively affect the mitochondria?

A

Strength training increases the the organelle’s ability to produce ATP

Cardiovascular training increases substrate concentrations and increases in the number of mitochondria in each cell

74
Q

What are the 4 fuel sources for aerobic metabolism?

A

Glucose, fatty acids, lactate, and ketones

75
Q

What are the 3 locations that fat is stored around the body?

A

Visceral fat - around the midsection, in the area between the abdominals and organs

Subcutaneous fat - directly beneath the skin

Intramuscular fat

76
Q

What are triglycerides?

A

The stored form of fatty acids

77
Q

What is lipolysis?

A

The breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids to be used for energy

78
Q

What roles does the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) play during exercise?

A

It attaches to receptors on fat cells, which breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids

Allows them to flow into the blood, which transports them to the muscles

79
Q

How do fatty acids reach the muscle cell?

A

They move into the sarcoplasm and then into the mitochondria

80
Q

What is beta-oxidation (β-oxidation)?

A

The process of transforming fatty acids into acetyl-CoA

81
Q

What are the two ways lactate can be used for energy?

A

Remain in the muscle

Move to other areas

82
Q

What happens when lactate remains in the muscle?

A

It converts back to pyruvate and then enters the mitochondria to produce ATP

83
Q

How does lactate move through the body?

A

It enters the bloodstream and flows into another working muscle, including the heart or the liver

84
Q

What happens when lactate enters the liver?

A

It’s converted to pyruvate, then to glucose, and then sent back through the bloodstream to wherever it’s needed

85
Q

What are ketones?

A

An acidic by-product of fatty acid metabolism, produced in the liver when glucose isn’t available

86
Q

What hormones control ketones?

A

insulin and glucagon

87
Q

What is insulin?

A

A hormone produced in the pancreas that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

88
Q

What is glucagon?

A

hormone produced in the pancreas that increases levels of glucose and fatty acids in blood

89
Q

What conditions force the liver to metabolize large amounts of fatty acids?

A

starvation, a severe illness or infection, or a chronic disease like diabetes

90
Q

What happens if ketones remain elevated too long?

A

It can lead to ketoacidosis, a potentially fatal health problem

91
Q

During exercise, ketones don’t typically play a significant role in ATP production. But when will they will have an effect?

A

A diet very low in carbohydrates
An ultralow calorie diet
An ultramarathon or another extreme endurance event

92
Q

What percent of the brain’s ATP needs do ketones meet after 3 days and then several weeks without carbs?

A

30 and 70

93
Q

Regardless of the fuel source, acetyl-CoA is the central metabolite that . . .

A

initiates the aerobic metabolism process within the mitochondria

94
Q

The Krebs cycle is also referred to as the . . .

A

citric acid cycle

95
Q

How many steps are in the citric acid cycle?

A

Eight

96
Q

What are crucial products that contribute electrons to aerobic metabolism?

A

NADH and FADH2

97
Q

What is the electron transport chain?

A

The stage where most of the ATP (32) is produced in aerobic metabolism

98
Q

What happens during rephosphorylation?

A

The additional phosphate is broken down again for quick energy as part of the ATP-ADP cycle

99
Q

What happens to the glucose molecule during anaerobic glycolosis?

A

It is split into a pair of pyruvate molecules to produce two ATP

100
Q

Where is creatine found, and what do average stores depend upon?

A

Creatine is naturally found in muscle tissue

Average stores maintained will depend on overall muscle mass

101
Q

Where is creatine synthesized?

A

in the liver and kidneys

102
Q

What amino acids synthesize creatine?

A

methionine, glycine, and arginine

103
Q

What is the long-term effect of metabolic acidosis?

A

Reprograms the cell to recycle ADP faster and reduce the oxidative stress of the process

104
Q

What happens when lactate enters the liver and it’s not needed?

A

the glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the muscles or liver to fuel future activity

105
Q

What is the muscle’s primary potential source of H+ accumulation?

A

ATP hydrolysis

106
Q

What is the goal of endurance training?

A

To develop the body’s ability to use stored fat as the primary fuel source, since fat provides a virtually limitless supply of energy

107
Q

What happens as ATP-ADP cycle keeps running?

A

More protons build up in the cytoplasm, reducing the pH of the cell

108
Q

How long does Full replenishment of stored phosphocreatine take after maximum effort exercise?

A

15–25 minutes

109
Q

What is the currency of the human body that allows it to continually function?

A

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

110
Q

How much ATP can the human body store?

A

Very little. Skeletal muscles have enough stored ATP to contract vigorously for just one or two seconds

111
Q

What is muscle’s second fastest source of ATP?

A

Glucose

When stored glycogen runs low, glucose in the bloodstream is forced into the muscle cells and broken down in a process called glycolysis

ISSA S&C (16 decks)

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