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Biology 2312 > Chapter 52 > Flashcards

Chapter 52 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the name for the diploid, fertilized egg?

A

zygote

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2
Q

Which animals reproduce asexually?

A

bacteria; archaea; protists; cnidarians; tunicates

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3
Q

(T/F) Multicellular animals only reproduce sexually.

A

False, cnidarians and tunicates can reproduce asexually.

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4
Q

What is fission?

A

when a single-celled organism divides and each part becomes a separate but identical organism

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5
Q

What mechanism do Cnidarians use to reproduce?

A

budding

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6
Q

What is budding?

A

where a part of the parent’s body becomes separated and differentiates into a new individual

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7
Q

In budding, what are the two options for the offspring?

A

can become an independent animal or can remain attached to the parent to form a colony

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8
Q

Parthenogenesis is common in

A

arthropods

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9
Q

What happens in parthenogenesis?

A

females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs

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10
Q

Can organisms switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis?

A

Yes, those that are exclusively parthenogenic are all females

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11
Q

The offspring of parthenogenic organisms are

A

haploid

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12
Q

Explain how the honeybee can switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis.

A

mates and stores sperm – if she doesn’t release the sperm, the eggs develop into haploid males; if she releases the sperm, the eggs develop into diploid females; if the fertilized egg is exposed to the right hormone, the egg becomes a queen

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13
Q

Give examples of vertebrates that are parthenogenic. (3)

A

Lacerta lizard; fish; salamanders

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14
Q

Can vertebrates be parthenogenic?

A

Yes

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15
Q

What is hermaphroditism?

A

when an individual has both testes and ovaries (can produce sperm and eggs)

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16
Q

Give an example of a hermaphroditic organism.

A

tapeworm

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17
Q

(T/F) Hermaphroditic animals can self-fertilize.

A

True (like the tapeworm), but most need another individual to reproduce

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18
Q

How do earthworms reproduce?

A

hermaphroditically but they need to copulate with another earthworm (as opposed to the tapeworm which can self-fertilize)

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19
Q

What is protogyny?

A

first female, a change from female to male

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20
Q

What is protandry?

A

first male, a change from male to female

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21
Q

Where is sequential hermaphroditism found?

A

in numerous genera of fish

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22
Q

Give an example of a fish that practices sequential hermaphroditism.

A

coral reef fish

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23
Q

What influences protogyny in fish?

A

social control

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24
Q

Describe fish that practice protogyny.

A

live in large groups (schools) where successful reproduction is limited to few large males; if males are removed, largest female changes sex and becomes male

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25
Q

How is an individual’s sex determined in fish, reptiles?

A

determined by temperature experienced during development - cold temp produces males and warm temp produces females, but can be the opposite OR males produced at both high and low temps and females at temps in between

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26
Q

How is sex determined in birds, mammals?

A

by genes

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27
Q

In most animals, XX is female except in

A

birds, where the heterozygous sex is female

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28
Q

When do the reproductive systems of human males/females appear?

A

40 days after conception

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29
Q

The cells that ultimately become ova/sperm originate in

A

the yolk sac and migrate to the embryonic gonads

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30
Q

Embryonic gonads are said to be

A

indifferent, since they can become either ovaries or either testes

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31
Q

What is the sex-determining gene in humans?

A

SRY (sex-determining region of Y chromosome), which is present in males, which converts the embryonic gonads into testes

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32
Q

What is the “default” mammal sex?

A

female - the embryo will only become a male if the functional SRY gene is present

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33
Q

How do female marine bony fishes release eggs?

A

produce eggs in batches and release them into water

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34
Q

How are marine bony fish eggs fertilized?

A

males release their sperm into water and union of free gametes occurs

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35
Q

What is a disadvantage of dispersing gametes in water? (2)

A

the release from males and females must be almost simultaneous; release of eggs and sperm must be restricted to well-defined periods

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36
Q

What is one signal that tells marine organisms to reproduce?

A

tidal cycles of the Moon - when the Moon gets closer to the earth and cause higher tides, it tells marine organisms to reproduce

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37
Q

Internal fertilization occurred in terrestrial vertebrates because

A

gametes would otherwise dry up and perish

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38
Q

(T/F) Internal fertilization is exclusive to terrestrial vertebrates.

A

False, some fish use internal fertilization

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39
Q

What are the three strategies for embryonic/fetal development?

A

oviparity; ovoviviparity; viviparity

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40
Q

Where is oviparity found? (6)

A

some bony fishes; most reptiles; some cartilaginous fish; some amphibians; a few mammals; all birds

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41
Q

What is oviparity?

A

after being fertilized internally, eggs are deposited outside the mother’s body to complete development

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42
Q

Where is ovoviviparity found? (3)

A

some bony fishes; some cartilaginous fish; many reptiles

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43
Q

What is ovoviviparity? (2)

A

fertilized eggs are retained within mother to complete development, but embryo obtains nourishment from egg yolk; fully independent when hatched

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44
Q

Where is viviparity found? (4)

A

most cartilaginous fish; some amphibians; few reptiles; almost all mammals

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45
Q

Most cartilaginous fish use what reproductive strategy?

A

viviparity

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46
Q

Almost all mammals use what reproductive strategy?

A

viviparity

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47
Q

Most reptiles use what reproductive strategy?

A

oviparity

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48
Q

Birds use what reproductive strategy?

A

oviparity

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49
Q

What is viviparity?

A

young develop within mother and receive all nourishment from mother’s blood via placenta

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50
Q

(T/F) Placenta are exclusive to mammals.

A

False, they’ve evolved in fishes and lizards

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51
Q

Live birth occurs in which reproductive strategies?

A

ovoviviparity or viviparity

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52
Q

How has live birth evolved in vertebrates?

A

one time in mammals, many times independently in fishes/amphibians/reptiles; a one-way evolutionary street

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53
Q

What are amniotes?

A

reptiles, birds, mammals

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54
Q

How was internal fertilization evolved in vertebrates?

A

evolved only once in amniotes, evolved multiple times in fishes/amphibians

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55
Q

How do salamanders do internal fertilization?

A

males deposit sperm on top of mass of eggs and then female positions her cloaca above them, lowers body, picks up fertilized eggs

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56
Q

In cartilaginous fish, what transfers sperm into the female’s body?

A

modified pelvic fin

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57
Q

A modified cloaca is used to transfer sperm in which animals? (3)

A

frogs, caecilians, birds

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58
Q

Penises are used in which animals? (3)

A

turtles, crocodiles, mammals

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59
Q

Hemipenises are used in which animals? (2)

A

snakes and lizards

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60
Q

Define intromittent organ.

A

male copulatory organ

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61
Q

Intromittent organs were lost in (2)

A

birds, rhynchocephalians

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62
Q

External fertilization is found in which general groups of animals? (2)

A

fishes, amphibians (even though internal fertilization has evolved in these organisms many times)

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63
Q

Describe fertilization and development in bony fish.

A

external fertilization; eggs contain enough yolk for short time; young fish must seek food from surrounding waters; speedy development

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64
Q

Is fertilization/development in bony fishes particularly efficient?

A

Not really - thousands of eggs can be fertilized but only a few will grow to maturity since most succumb to predation/infection

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65
Q

Describe fertilization/development in cartilaginous fish.

A

internal fertilization; viviparous; female gives birth to few, well-developed offspring

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66
Q

The life cycle of amphibians is tied to

A

the water

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67
Q

From where are gametes released in amphibians?

A

from the cloaca, in both males and females

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68
Q

In general, the eggs of amphibians develop in

A

water

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69
Q

What are some exceptions to amphibian eggs developing in water? (2)

A

some frogs carry eggs on the backs of parents; males can carry tadpoles in vocal sacs

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70
Q

What percent of reptile species are oviparous?

A

80%

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71
Q

Once oviparous reptiles lay eggs, what happens?

A

most oviparous reptiles abandon the eggs after laying them

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72
Q

All birds use what kind of fertilization?

A

internal fertilization

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73
Q

(T/F) Most male birds have penises.

A

False, most of them don’t, and some have modified cloacas.

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74
Q

Describe the egg shell of reptile eggs.

A

leathery shell

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75
Q

As the egg passes through the bird oviduct, what happens?

A

glands secrete albumin proteins

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76
Q

Which protein is responsible for egg whites?

A

albumin

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77
Q

What is necessary after young birds are born?

A

development is incomplete, so they need nurturing from their parents

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78
Q

What are amniotic eggs?

A

eggs in which the embryo develops within a fluid-filled cavity surrounded by a membrane called an amnion

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79
Q

What are the three other extraembryonic membranes (other than the amnion)?

A

chorion; yolk sac; allantois

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80
Q

What is the chorion?

A

lines the inside of the eggshell

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81
Q

What is the importance of the extraembryonic membranes?

A

extraembryonic membranes, combined with the hard shell, prevents the embryo from drying out

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82
Q

Most female mammals are sexually receptive to males

A

around the time of ovulation

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83
Q

What is estrus?

A

period of sexual receptivity in females (around the time of ovulation)

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84
Q

What secretes FSH and LH?

A

anterior pituitary gland

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85
Q

Which two hormones are primarily responsible for driving the mammalian estrous cycle?

A

FSH and LH

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86
Q

How are humans and apes different from other mammals in terms of estrous cycles?

A

humans and apes bleed when they shed the inner lining of the uterus; they can engage in copulation during any time of the cycle

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87
Q

How are rabbits and cats different from other mammals?

A

females ovulate only after copulation as a result of a reflex stimulation of LH secretion

88
Q

What are the most primitive mammals?

A

monotremes

89
Q

What are the only two monotremes?

A

duck-billed platypus and the echidna

90
Q

How do monotremes incubate their eggs?

A

incubate their eggs in a nest or specialized pouch

91
Q

How do monotreme hatchlings obtain milk from their mothers?

A

young hatchlings obtain milk from their mother’s mammary glands by licking her skin (because monotremes don’t have nipples)

92
Q

What are the two subgroups of mammals based on how they care for their young?

A

marsupials and placental mammals

93
Q

Describe marsupial offspring.

A

small, fetuslike offspring that are incompletely developed; complete development in mother’s pouch; obtain nourishment from nipples

94
Q

Placental mammal fetuses are nourished by

A

a placenta

95
Q

The placenta is derived from

A

the chorion (extraembryonic membrane) and the mother’s uterine lining

96
Q

On a molecular level, how does the placental mammal fetus obtain nutrients from the mother?

A

since the fetal and maternal blood vessels are close together, the fetus obtains nutrients by diffusion from the mother’s blood

97
Q

What are the sites of sperm production?

A

seminiferous tubules

98
Q

When do seminiferous tubules develop?

A

43 to 50 days after conception

99
Q

Where are Leydig cells located?

A

located in interstitial tissue between seminiferous tubules

100
Q

9 to 10 weeks after conception, what happens in the male reproductive system?

A

the Leydig cells begin to secrete testosterone

101
Q

What is the general name for male sex hormones?

A

androgens

102
Q

What is the purpose of testosterone during embryonic development?

A

converts indifferent structures into male external genitalia (penis + scrotum)

103
Q

In adult males, each testis is primarily composed of

A

highly convoluted seminiferous tubules

104
Q

Where are testes actually formed?

A

within the abdominal cavity, but they descend before birth through the inguinal canal into the scrotum

105
Q

What opening do the testis pass through when moving out of the abdominal cavity?

A

inguinal canal

106
Q

What is the temperature in the scrotum?

A

34 C (lower than 37 C body temperature)

107
Q

The wall of the seminiferous tubules is composed of (2)

A

germ cells (spermatogonia) + supporting Sertoli cells

108
Q

Which cells in the testes are diploid?

A

the germ cells near the outer surface of the seminiferous tubules are diploid and are the only cells that will undergo meiosis

109
Q

Where cells in the testes are haploid?

A

the developing gamete cells located closer to the lumen of the tubule

110
Q

First, a spermatogonium divides by

A

mitosis to produce 2 diploid cells - one will go through meiosis and the other will remain a spermatogonium

111
Q

Adult males, on average, produce how many sperm cells each day?

A

100 to 200 million sperm

112
Q

What is a primary spermatocyte?

A

the diploid daughter cell that begins meiosis

113
Q

The daughter cell of spermatgonium cell division that eventually undergoes meiosis is called a

A

primary spermatocyte

114
Q

What happens in the first meiotic division? (2)

A

the homologous chromosome pairs are separated which produces 2 haploid secondary spermatocytes; each chromosome still has duplicate chromatids

115
Q

What are secondary spermatocytes?

A

the haploid cells that result from the first round of meiotic division

116
Q

What happens in the second meiotic division?

A

chromatids are separated to produce 2 haploid spermatids

117
Q

What are spermatids?

A

haploid cells that result from the second round of meiotic division

118
Q

Which cells constitute the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules?

A

spermatogonia; primary spermatocytes; secondary spermatocytes; spermatids

119
Q

The seminiferous tubules contain nongerminal cells called

A

Sertoli cells

120
Q

What is the function of Sertoli cells?

A

nurse the developing sperm and secrete products required for spermatogenesis; convert spermatids into spermatozoa by engulfing extra cytoplasm

121
Q

Spermatids are converted into _____ by ______.

A

spermatozoa by Sertoli cells

122
Q

What is the “final” sperm product?

A

spermatozoa

123
Q

Spermatozoa are comprised of what three general sections?

A

head, body, flagellum

124
Q

The head of the spermatozoon encloses

A

a compact nucleus

125
Q

The head of the spermatozoon is capped by

A

a vesicle called an acrosome

126
Q

Where does the acrosome derive from?

A

the Golgi complex

127
Q

What is the acrosome?

A

vesicle that caps the head of the spermatozoon

128
Q

What is the function of the acrosome?

A

contains enzymes that aid in the penetration of the protective layer surrounding the egg

129
Q

After sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules, where do they travel to?

A

the epididymis

130
Q

What is the epididymis?

A

a long, coiled tube

131
Q

What about sperm needs to be developed when they arrive in the epididymis?

A

they are not motile when they arrive in the epididymis

132
Q

How long do sperm wait in the epididymis?

A

must wait in the epididymis for at least 18 hours to let motility develop

133
Q

What major function of sperm develops while in the epididymis?

A

motility

134
Q

From the epididymis, where do the sperm travel?

A

the vas deferens

135
Q

Where does the vas deferens lead to?

A

passes into the abdominal cavity via the inguinal canal, then to a duct leading to the seminal vesicles

136
Q

The seminal vesicles produce

A

a fructose-rich fluid constituting 60% of semen volume

137
Q

After the seminal vesicles, the vas deferens continues as

A

the ejaculatory duct and enters the prostate gland at the base of the urinary bladder

138
Q

How big is the prostate gland in humans?

A

golf ball

139
Q

The prostate gland contributes what percentage of semen composition?

A

30%

140
Q

From the prostate gland, semen

A

is carried through the urethra out of the body

141
Q

What contributes the last 10% of semen?

A

bulbourethral glands

142
Q

In addition to contributing part of semen, the bulbourethral glands also secrete

A

a fluid that lines the urethra/tip of penis prior to coitus

143
Q

What erectile tissues does the penis contain?

A

corpora cavernosa; corpus spongiosum

144
Q

Where is the corpora cavernosa located?

A

along the dorsal side of the penis

145
Q

Where is the corpus songiosum located?

A

along the ventral side of the penis

146
Q

What causes penile erection?

A

neurons in the parasympathetic division release NO which causes arterioles in the penis to dilate, flow of blood in compresses veins so blood can’t flow back out

147
Q

What is the average ejaculate?

A

2 to 5 mL, 300 million sperm

148
Q

What is considered sterile?

A

20 million sperm or lower

149
Q

Sperm constitutes what percentage of semen?

A

only 1%

150
Q

In males, what is the function of FSH?

A

stimulates spermatogenesis via Sertoli cells

151
Q

In males, what is the function of LH?

A

stimulates secretion of testosterone by Leydig cells

152
Q

In males, what is the function of testosterone?

A

stimulates development/maintenance of male secondary sexual characteristics, accessory sex organs, spermatogenesis

153
Q

What are the four male accessory sex organs?

A

prostate gland, bulbourethral gland, vas deferens, seminal vesicles

154
Q

What stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH?

A

hypothalamic hormone gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

155
Q

How are FSH and Sertoli cells involved in negative feedback inhibition?

A

FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to secrete inhibin (peptide hormone) which inhibits FSH secretion

156
Q

How are LH and testosterone involved in negative feedback inhibition?

A

LH stimulates testosterone secretion, testosterone inhibits release of LH

157
Q

In females, what is the function of FSH?

A

stimulates growth of ovarian follicles and secretion of estradiol

158
Q

In females, what is the function of LH? (3)

A

stimulates ovulation; conversion of ovarian follicles into corpus luteum; secretion of estradiol and progesterone by corpus luteum

159
Q

In females, what is the function of estrogen? (2)

A

stimulates development/maintenance of female secondary sexual characteristics; prompts monthly preparation of uterus for pregnancy

160
Q

In females, what is the function of progesterone? (2)

A

completes preparation of uterus for pregnancy; helps maintain female secondary sexual characteristics

161
Q

In females, what is the function of oxytocin? (2)

A

stimulates contraction of uterus and milk-ejection reflex

162
Q

In females, what is the function of prolactin?

A

stimulates milk production

163
Q

In the absence of testosterone, the female embryo develops

A

a clitoris and labia majora from the same structures that produce a penis and scrotum

164
Q

The penis is analogous to

A

the clitoris

165
Q

The scrotum is analogous to

A

labia majora

166
Q

The clitoris and penis are similar in that they both contain

A

corpora cavernosa (both are erectile)

167
Q

Ovarian follicles contain

A

primary oocyte + granulosa cells

168
Q

What is a primary oocyte?

A

potential egg

169
Q

At puberty, what do granulosa cells do?

A

secrete major female sex hormone estrogen

170
Q

What is menarche?

A

onset of menstrual cycling

171
Q

What are the female accessory sex organs? (3)

A

fallopian tubes; uterus; vagina

172
Q

Describe the primary oocytes at birth.

A

the primary oocytes have begin meiosis but are arrested in prophase of the first meiotic division

173
Q

The human menstrual cycle can be divided into what two phases? What separates these phases?

A

can be divided in terms of ovarian activity into the follicular phase and luteal phase, separated by the event of ovulation

174
Q

What happens at the beginning of each menstrual cycle in terms of follicular development?

A

single dominant follicle emerges and continues development while other follicles in that group head toward destruction

175
Q

Generally speaking, what happens during the follicular phase?

A

dominant follicle achieves full maturity as late tertiary follicle under FSH stimulation

176
Q

What is another name for the late tertiary follicle?

A

Graafian follicle

177
Q

What lines the uterus?

A

simple columnar epithelial membrane called the endometrium

178
Q

The late tertiary follicle forms as a

A

thin-walled blister on the surface of the ovary

179
Q

During the follicular phase, what causes the growth of the endometrium?

A

estrogen

180
Q

What is another name for the follicular phase and why?

A

also known as the proliferative phase because the endometrium grows

181
Q

During the follicular phase, what happens to the primary oocyte located in the Graafian follicle?

A

primary oocyte completes first meiotic division to produce one large daughter cell called the secondary oocyte and one small daughter cell called the polar body

182
Q

What is the polar body?

A

small daughter cell that results from the primary oocyte completing the first round of meiotic division

183
Q

What is the secondary oocyte?

A

large daughter cell that results from the primary oocyte completing the first round of meiotic division

184
Q

What happens to the polar body?

A

disintegrates

185
Q

What happens to the secondary oocyte following the first round of meiotic division?

A

begins second round of meiotic division but is arrested at metaphase II; will not complete second round of division unless fertilized in the Fallopian tube

186
Q

The increasing level of estrogen in the blood during the follicular phase stimulates what?

A

stimulates the anterior-pituitary gland to secrete LH midcycle

187
Q

The secretion of LH midcycle causes

A

the sudden secretion of LH causes fully developed Graafian follicle to burst open and release the secondary oocyte (ovulation)

188
Q

Where does the released secondary oocyte go after ovulation?

A

enters abdominal cavity near the fimbriae to go into the Fallopian tubes

189
Q

What are fimbriae?

A

feathery projections surrounding the opening to the Fallopian tube

190
Q

What pulls the secondary oocyte into the Fallopian tubes?

A

ciliated epithelial cells lining the Fallopian tubes draw in the secondary oocyte and propel it towards the uterus

191
Q

What happens to a secondary oocyte that isn’t fertilized?

A

if it isn’t fertilized, it disintegrates within a day following ovulation

192
Q

What happens to a secondary oocyte that is fertilized?

A

stimulus of fertilization allows it complete second round of meiotic division

193
Q

Where does fertilization occur in the human female?

A

upper third of Fallopian tubes

194
Q

How long does it take for the fertilized zygote to travel to the uterus from the Fallopian tube?

A

3 days to reach uterus, then another 2-3 days to implant in the endometrium

195
Q

After ovulation, what happens to the Graafian follicle?

A

LH stimulates conversion of Graafian follicle into corpus luteum

196
Q

The second half of the menstrual cycle is called the

A

luteal phase

197
Q

The corpus luteum secretes

A

estrogen and progesterone

198
Q

What is the purpose of the corpus luteum secreting estrogen and progesterone? (2)

A

estrogen and progesterone exert negative feedback inhibition of FSH and LH; prevents development of additional follicles

199
Q

In the luteal phase, what is the effect of progesterone and estrogen on the endometrium?

A

endometrium becomes more vascular, glandular, and enriched with glycogen deposits

200
Q

What is another name for the luteal phase?

A

secretory phase because of the way the endometrium prepares itself for embryo implantation

201
Q

What happens to the corpus luteum if fertilization doesn’t occur? (3)

A

degenerates due to decreasing levels of FSH/LH which are caused by estrogen/progesterone feedback inhibition; corpus luteum needs LH for survival but LH is decreased so corpus luteum dies; drop in corpus luteum means abrupt decline in estrogen levels; built-up endometrium is shed

202
Q

Menstruation is caused by

A

the corpus luteum disintegrating and estrogen levels decreasing

203
Q

What happens to the corpus luteum if fertilization does occur?

A

embryo secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to prevent regression of corpus luteum

204
Q

What is hCG?

A

LH-like hormone produced by chorionic membrane

205
Q

What is the purpose of maintaining the corpus luteum after fertilization?

A

hCG keeps the levels of estrogen and progesterone high which prevent menstruation, which would terminate the pregnancy

206
Q

Why is hCG used in pregnancy tests?

A

because it comes from the embryo and not the mother - can better test for pregnancy

207
Q

What are the four phases of estrous cycles in mammals, in order?

A

proestrus; estrus; metestrus; diestrus

208
Q

What are two other names for the Fallopian tubes?

A

uterine tubes; oviducts

209
Q

What are the four phases of the menstrual cycle in humans, in order?

A

proliferative; midcycle; secretory; menstrual

210
Q

What is the uterus?

A

muscular, pear-shaped organ that narrows to form a neck (cervix, which leads to vagina)

211
Q

The entrance to the vagina is initially covered by

A

the hymen

212
Q

During sexual arousal, what happens to the secondary female sex organs?

A

become engorged with bloods

213
Q

During sexual arousal, what secretes lubricant?

A

Bartholin’s glands

214
Q

Describe the female reproductive tracts in cats/dogs/cows.

A

one cervix but two uterine horns separated by a septum

215
Q

Describe the female reproductive tracts in marsupials.

A

two unconnected uterine horns, two cervices, two vaginas

Biology 2312 (11 decks)

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