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Biology 2312 > Chapter 45 > Flashcards

Chapter 45 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the four mechanisms of cell communication?

A

direct contact; synaptic signaling; endocrine signaling; paracrine signaling

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2
Q

What is a hormone?

A

regulatory chemical secreted into extracellular fluid and carried by the blood

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3
Q

What is the main advantage of hormones?

A

they can act at a distance from its source

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4
Q

Specialized organs that secrete hormones are called

A

endocrine glands

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5
Q

What are two organs that additionally secrete hormones?

A

kidney; liver

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6
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

collectively refers to organs, tissues that produce hormones

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7
Q

(T/F) The blood carries hormones to every cell in the body.

A

true

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8
Q

What must a cell have to be able to respond to a hormone?

A

A cell must have the appropriate receptor to respond.

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9
Q

The highly specific interactions between hormones and their receptors enable hormones to be active at

A

remarkably small concentrations, such as 1e-8 or 1e-9 M

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10
Q

What is the name for the chemical messengers that are not neurotransmitters or hormones, and where do they act?

A

paracrine regulators; released and act within an organ on nearby cells as local regulators

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11
Q

Do paracrine regulators travel through the blood?

A

no

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12
Q

What is autocrine signaling?

A

when cells release signaling molecules that affect their own behavior

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13
Q

Autocrine signaling is common in (2)

A

the immune system; cancer cells that release growth factors that stimulate their own growth

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14
Q

What are pheromones?

A

chemicals released into the environment to communicate among individuals of a single species

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15
Q

What do pheromones change?

A

may alter the behavior or physiology of the receiver, but are not involved in the normal metabolic regulation of an animal

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16
Q

Molecules aren’t just limited to acting as hormones; they can also act as

A

neurotransmitters

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17
Q

Give an example of a molecule that functions as a hormone and as a neurotransmitter that is secreted by the adrenal glands.

A

norepinephrine

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18
Q

Neurons secrete a class of hormones carried by the blood that are called

A

neurohormones

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19
Q

What secretes antidiuretic hormone?

A

neurons in the brain

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20
Q

How can neurons deliver chemical messages beyond the nervous system itself?

A

some specialized regions of the brain contain not only neurotransmitting neurons, but also clusters of neurons producing neurohormones

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21
Q

What controls endocrine glands’ secretory activities?

A

nervous system

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22
Q

What controls the hormonal secretions of the anterior pituitary gland?

A

hypothalamus

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23
Q

What produces the hormones of the posterior pituitary?

A

hypothalamus

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24
Q

Is the secretion of hormones always under neural control?

A

No, it can be independent of neural control

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25
Q

Give an example of two hormones that are secreted outside of neural control.

A

insulin from pancreas; aldosterone by adrenal cortex

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26
Q

What stimulates the release of insulin from the pancreas?

A

stimulated by increases in the blood concentrations of glucose

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27
Q

What stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex?

A

stimulated by increases in the blood concentrations of K+

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28
Q

Cells in the organs that are part of the endocrine system secrete hormones after synthesis into what?

A

the extracellular fluid, where it diffuses into surrounding blood capillaries

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29
Q

Contrast endocrine and exocrine glands.

A

Exocrine glands secrete their product into a duct to outside the body or into the gut

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30
Q

What are the two basic characteristics of hormones?

A

must be sufficiently complex to convey regulatory information to targets; must be adequately stable to resist destruction prior to reaching target cells

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31
Q

What are the three primary categories of hormones?

A

peptides and proteins; amino acid derivatives; steroids

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32
Q

How many AAs long is antidiuretic acid?

A

9 amino acids

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33
Q

How many AAs long is insulin?

A

51 amino acids

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34
Q

How many AAs long is growth hormones?

A

191 amino acids

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35
Q

Peptides and proteins are composed of

A

chains of amino acids

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36
Q

Amino acid derivatives are hormones manufactured by

A

enzymatic modification of specific amino acids

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37
Q

Amino acid derivatives include hormones secreted by what three structures?

A

adrenal medulla; thyroid; pineal glands

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38
Q

The amino acid derivatives secreted from the adrenal medulla are derived from

A

tyrosine.

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39
Q

What is the name for the group of amino acid derivatives secreted from the adrenal medulla that are derived from tyrosine?

A

catecholamines

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40
Q

Catecholamines include what two classes of hormones?

A

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

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41
Q

What are thyroid hormones? (2)

A

hormones that are derived from tyrosine; secreted by thyroid gland

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42
Q

What are two groups of hormones that are derived from tyrosine?

A

catecholamines; thyroid hormones

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43
Q

What secretes melatonin?

A

pineal gland

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44
Q

Melatonin is derived from which amino acid?

A

tryptophan

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45
Q

Describe steroids.

A

lipids manufactured by enzymatic modifications of cholesterol

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46
Q

Steroids are primarily derived from

A

cholesterol

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47
Q

Steroid hormones can be divided into what two classes?

A

sex steroids; corticosteroids

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48
Q

Sex steroids are secreted by (4)

A

the testes, ovaries, placenta, adrenal cortex

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49
Q

Corticosteroids are secreted by

A

only the adrenal cortex

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50
Q

Give 5 examples of steroid hormones.

A

testosterone; estradiol; progesterone; aldosterone; cortisol

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51
Q

Broadly speaking, hormones can be organized into what two categories?

A

lipophilic; hydrophilic

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52
Q

Which two categories/classes of hormones are lipophilic?

A

steroid hormones; thyroid hormones

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53
Q

Which categories/classes of hormones are hydrophilic?

A

almost everything except steroid hormones, thyroid hormones

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54
Q

Hydrophilic hormones are freely soluble in (2)

A

water; blood

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55
Q

The hypothalamus secretes what two hormones?

A

releasing hormones; inhibiting hormones

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56
Q

What is the the target tissue for releasing hormones?

A

adenohypophysis

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57
Q

What is the principal action of releasing hormones?

A

activates release of adenohypophyseal hormones

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58
Q

What is the chemical nature of releasing hormones?

A

peptides

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59
Q

What is the target tissue of inhibiting hormones?

A

adenohypophysis

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60
Q

What is the principal action of inhibiting hormones?

A

inhibit release of adenohypophyseal hormones

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61
Q

What is the chemical nature of inhibiting hormones?

A

peptides (except prolactin-inhibiting factor, which is dopamine)

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62
Q

What is another name for the posterior-pituitary gland?

A

neurohypophysis

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63
Q

What is another name for the neurohypophysis?

A

posterior-pituitary gland

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64
Q

What are the two hormones secreted by the neurohypophysis?

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH); oxytocin (OT)

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65
Q

What is the target tissue of the antidiuretic hormone?

A

kidneys

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66
Q

What is the principal action of the antidiuretic hormone?

A

conserves water by stimulating its reabsorption from urine

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67
Q

What is the chemical nature of the antidiuretic hormone?

A

peptide (9 amino acids)

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68
Q

What are the target tissues of oxytocin?

A

uterus; mammary glands

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69
Q

What are the principal actions of oxytocin?

A

in the uterus, stimulates contractions; in the mammary glands, stimulates milk ejection

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70
Q

What is the chemical nature of oxytocin?

A

peptide (9 amino acids)

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71
Q

What is another name for the anterior-pituitary gland?

A

adenohypophysis

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72
Q

What is another name for the adenohypophysis?

A

anterior-pituitary gland

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73
Q

What 7 hormones are secreted by the adenohypophysis?

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH); melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH); growth hormone (GH); prolactin (PRL); thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH); luteinizing hormone (LH); follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

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74
Q

What is the target tissue of the adrenocorticotropic hormone?

A

adrenal cortex

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75
Q

What is the principal action of the adrenocorticotropic hormone?

A

stimulates secretion of adrenal cortical hormones such as cortisol

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76
Q

What is the chemical nature of the adrenocorticotropic hormone?

A

peptide (39 amino acids)

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77
Q

What is the target tissue of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone?

A

skin

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78
Q

What are the principal actions of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone?

A

stimulates color change in reptiles and amphibians; various functions in mammals

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79
Q

What is the chemical nature of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone?

A

peptide (2 forms: 13 and 22 amino acids)

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80
Q

What is the target tissue of the growth hormone?

A

many organs

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81
Q

What is the principal action of the growth hormone?

A

stimulates growth by promoting bone growth, protein synthesis, and fat breakdown

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82
Q

What is the chemical nature of the growth hormone?

A

protein

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83
Q

What is the target tissue of prolactin?

A

mammary glands

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84
Q

What is the principal action of prolactin?

A

stimulates milk production

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85
Q

What is the chemical nature of prolactin?

A

protein

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86
Q

What is the target tissue of the thyroid-stimulating hormone?

A

thyroid gland

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87
Q

What is the principle action of the thyroid-stimulating hormone?

A

stimulates thyroxine secretion

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88
Q

What is the chemical nature of the thyroid-stimulating hormone?

A

glycoprotein

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89
Q

What is the target tissue of the luteinizing hormone?

A

gonads

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90
Q

What are the principal actions of the luteinizing hormone? (2)

A

in females, stimulates ovulation and corpus luteum formation; in males, stimulates secretion of testosterone

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91
Q

What is the chemical nature of the luteinizing hormone?

A

glycoprotein

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92
Q

What is the target tissue of the follicle-stimulating hormone?

A

gonads

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93
Q

What are the principal actions of the follicle-stimulating hormone?

A

in females, stimulates development of ovarian follices; in males, stimulates spermatogenesis

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94
Q

What is the chemical nature of the follicle-stimulating hormone?

A

glycoprotein

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95
Q

What two hormones does the thyroid gland secrete?

A

thyroid hormones (thyroxine + triiodothyronine); calcitonin

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96
Q

What is the target tissue of the thyroid hormones?

A

most cells

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97
Q

What are the principal actions of the thyroid hormones? (2)

A

stimulates metabolic rate; essential to normal growth and development

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98
Q

What is the chemical nature of the thyroid hormones?

A

amino acid derivative (iodinated)

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99
Q

What is the target tissue of calcitonin?

A

bone

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100
Q

What is the principal action of calcitonin?

A

inhibits loss of calcium from bone

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101
Q

What is the chemical nature of calcitonin?

A

peptide (32 amino acids)

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102
Q

What hormone does the parathyroid gland secrete?

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

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103
Q

What are the target tissues of the parathyroid hormone? (3)

A

bone; kidneys; digestive tract

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104
Q

What are the principal actions of the parathyroid hormone? (2)

A

raises blood calcium level by stimulating bone breakdown; stimulates calcium reabsorption in kidneys; activates vitamin D

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105
Q

What is the chemical nature of the parathyroid hormone?

A

peptide (34 amino acids)

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106
Q

What two hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla?

A

epinephrine (adrenaline); norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

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107
Q

What are the target tissues of epinephrine and norepinephrine? (3)

A

smooth muscle; cardiac muscle; blood vessels

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108
Q

What are the principal actions of epinephrine and norepinephrine? (5)

A

initiates stress responses; raises heart rate, blood pressure, metabolic rate; dilates blood vessels; mobilizes fat; raises blood glucose level

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109
Q

What is the chemical nature of epinephrine and norepinephrine?

A

amino acid derivatives

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110
Q

What two hormones does the adrenal cortex secrete?

A

glucocorticoids (like cortisol); mineralocorticoids (like aldosterone)

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111
Q

What is the target tissue of the glucocorticoids?

A

many organs

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112
Q

What are the principal actions of the glucocorticoids? (3)

A

adaptation to long-term stress; raises blood glucose level; mobilizes fat

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113
Q

What is the chemical nature of the glucocorticoids?

A

steroids

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114
Q

What is the target tissue of the mineralocorticoids?

A

kidney tubules

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115
Q

What is the principal action of the mineralocorticoids?

A

maintains proper balance of Na+ and K+ in blood

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116
Q

What is the chemical nature of the mineralocorticoids?

A

steroid

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117
Q

What two hormones are secreted by the pancreas?

A

insulin; glucagon

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118
Q

What are the target tissues of insulin? (3)

A

liver; skeletal muscles; adipose tissue

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119
Q

What are the principal actions of insulin? (2)

A

lowers blood glucose level; stimulates glycogen, fat, protein synthesis

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120
Q

What is the chemical nature of insulin?

A

peptide (51 amino acids)

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121
Q

What are the target tissues of glucagon? (2)

A

liver; adipose tissue

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122
Q

What are the principal actions of glucagon? (2)

A

raises blood glucose level; stimulates breakdown of glycogen in liver

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123
Q

What is the chemical nature of glucagon?

A

peptide (29 amino acids)

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124
Q

What are the two hormones secreted by the ovaries?

A

estradiol; progesterone

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125
Q

What are the target tissues of estradiol? (2)

A

general; female reproductive structures

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126
Q

What are the principal actions of estradiol? (2)

A

generally, stimulates development of female secondary sex characteristics; in female reproductive structures, stimulates growth of sex organs at puberty and monthly preparations of uterus for pregnancy

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127
Q

What is the chemical nature of estradiol?

A

steroid

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128
Q

What are the target tissues of progesterone? (2)

A

uterus; mammary glands

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129
Q

What are the principal actions of progesterone? (2)

A

in the uterus, completes preparation for pregnancy; in mammary glands, stimulates development

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130
Q

What is the chemical nature of progesterone?

A

steroid

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131
Q

What hormone is secreted by the testis?

A

testosterone

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132
Q

What are the target tissues of testosterone?

A

many organs; male reproductive structures

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133
Q

What are the principal actions of testosterone? (2)

A

in many organs, stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics in males and growth spurt at puberty; in male reproductive structures, stimulates development of sex organs and spermatogenesis

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134
Q

What is the chemical nature of testosterone?

A

steroid

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135
Q

What hormone is secreted by the pineal gland?

A

melatonin

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136
Q

What are the target tissues of melatonin? (3)

A

gonads; brains; pigment cells

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137
Q

What is the principal action of melatonin?

A

regulates biological rhythms

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138
Q

What is the chemical nature of melatonin?

A

amino acid derivative

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139
Q

How do hydrophilic hormones activate target cell receptors?

A

because hydrophilic hormones cannot cross a cell membrane, they must activate target cell receptors from outside the cell membrane

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140
Q

How do lipophilic hormones travel in the blood?

A

lipophilic hormones travel in the blood attached to transport proteins

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141
Q

How do lipophilic hormones activate target cell receptors?

A

they cross the cell membrane and bind to intracellular receptors

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142
Q

Eventually, what happens to hydrophilic and lipophilic hormones?

A

they are destroyed/deactivated after use and are excreted in bile or urin

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143
Q

Which hormone is deactivated more rapidly?

A

hydrophilic hormones are deactivated more rapidly than lipophilic hormones

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144
Q

Describe the longevity of hydrophilic and lipophilic hormones.

A

hydrophilic hormones act over brief periods of time whereas lipophilic hormones act over prolonged periods

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145
Q

Where does paracrine regulation occur?

A

occurs in most organs and among the cells of the immune system

146
Q

What are growth factors?

A

proteins that promote growth and cell division in specific organs

147
Q

What does the epidermal growth factor do?

A

activates mitosis of skin and development of connective tissue cells

148
Q

What does the nerve growth factor do?

A

stimulates growth and survival of neurons

149
Q

What does the insulin-like growth factor do? (2)

A

stimulates cell division in developing bone; protein synthesis in many other tissues

150
Q

What are cytokines?

A

growth factors specialized to control cell division and differentiation in the immune system

151
Q

What are neurotropins?

A

growth factors that regulate the nervous system

152
Q

Damage to the genes coding for growth factors or their receptors can lead to

A

unregulated cell division and the development of tumors

153
Q

NO can function as a

A

neurotransmitter

154
Q

NO is produced by

A

the endothelium of blood vessels

155
Q

How does NO function as a paracrine regulator?

A

it diffuses to the smooth muscle layer of the blood vessel and promotes vasodilation

156
Q

What is one of the major roles of NO?

A

control of blood pressure by dilating arteries

157
Q

What does endothelin do?

A

stimulates vasoconstriction

158
Q

What does bradykinin do?

A

promotes vasodilation

159
Q

Why is paracrine regulation important in the context of blood vessels?

A

supplements the regulation of blood vessels by autonomic nerves, enabling vessels to respond to local conditions

160
Q

Describe the structure of a prostaglandin.

A

20-carbon-long fatty acid that contains a five-membered carbon ring

161
Q

Prostaglandins are derived from

A

arachidonic acid

162
Q

When is arachidonic acid released?

A

released from phospholipids in the cell membrane under hormonal or other stimulation

163
Q

(T/F) Prostaglandins are produced in a small number of organs.

A

False, prostaglandins are produced in almost every organ and participate in a variety of regulatory functions

164
Q

Excessive prostaglandin production may be involved in (3)

A

premature labor; endometriosis; dysmenorrhea

165
Q

Prostaglandins are involved in (3)

A

regulating reproductive functions; promoting smooth muscle contractions; lung + kidney regulation

166
Q

In fish, prostaglandins have been found to function as

A

both a hormone and a paracrine regulator

167
Q

How are prostaglandins involved in pain?

A

they’re produced at locations of tissue damage, where they promote inflammation, swelling, pain, or fever

168
Q

Prostaglandins produced in a fish’s ovary can travel to what structure?

A

can travel to the brain to synchronize associated spawning behavior

169
Q

Give an example of a drug that inhibits prostaglandin synthesis.

A

aspirin

170
Q

To what class of drugs does aspirin belong to?

A

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

171
Q

Give two examples of NSAIDs, other than aspirin.

A

indomethacin; ibuprofen

172
Q

NSAIDs act to inhibit what two enzymes?

A

cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2

173
Q

The inhibition of which enzyme contributes to anti-inflammatory effects?

A

cyclooxygenase-2, which is necessary for the production of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid

174
Q

What are the side effects of the inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1? (2)

A

gastric leeding; prolonoged clotting time

175
Q

How do recently-developed pain relievers inhibit COX-1 and COX-2?

A

they selectively inhibit COX-2 but not COX-1

176
Q

Are COX-2 inhibitors more effective for pain than other NSAIDs?

A

no

177
Q

What is another lipophilic hormone, other than steroid or thyroid hormones?

A

the retinoids (vitamin A)

178
Q

Broadly speaking, prostaglandins are what type of regulator?

A

prostaglandins are a diverse group of paracrine regulators

179
Q

Ultimately, hormones that enter the cell are ultimately destined for what structure?

A

the nucleus

180
Q

What are two ways that hormones entering the cell go to the nucleus?

A

they can bind to receptors in the cytoplasm and move as a complex into the nucleus; they can directly travel into the nucleus and then bind to a receptor

181
Q

The hormone-receptor complex, once in the nucleus, undertakes what task?

A

binds to specific regions of DNA called hormone response elements

182
Q

What are hormone response elements?

A

specific regions of DNA to which hormone-receptor complexes bind

183
Q

Receptors that bind to hormones and facilitate DNA transcription are known as

A

hormone-activated transcription factors

184
Q

Describe the proteins that result from hormone-activated transcription.

A

often have activity that changes the metabolism of the target cell in a specific fashion

185
Q

What happens when estrogen binds to its receptors in the liver cells of chickens?

A

the protein vitellogenin is produced, which is transported to the ovary to form the yolk of eggs

186
Q

What happens when thyroid hormones bind to its receptors in the anterior pituitary of humans?

A

inhibition of the expression of the gene for thyrotropin (a negative feedback mechanism)

187
Q

How often can it take for the effect of lipophilic hormone stimulation to be apparent in target cells?

A

it can take several hours

188
Q

Which classes of hormones are too large or too polar to cross the plasma membrane of their target cells? (2)

A

peptides/protein/glycoprotein hormones; catecholamine hormones

189
Q

Where do large or hydrophilic hormones bind to the cell?

A

they bind to receptor proteins located on the outer surface of the plasma membrane

190
Q

The cellular response of a hydrophilic/large hormone binding to a surface receptor is called

A

signal transduction

191
Q

The cellular response of a hydrophilic/large hormone binding to a surface receptor is made possible by

A

intracellular enzymes called protein kinases

192
Q

What are protein kinases?

A

critical regulatory enzymes that activate or deactivate intracellular proteins by phosphorylation

193
Q

For which hormone is its receptor itself a kinase?

A

insulin

194
Q

What happens when insulin binds to its receptor that is itself a kinase?

A

results in the placement of glucose transport proteins in the plasma membrane, which enables glucose to enter cells

195
Q

In other peptide hormones, such as the growth hormone, how are receptors activated?

A

The receptor itself is not a kinase, but the hormone-bound receptor recruits and activates intracellular kinases, which then initiate cellular response

196
Q

Hydrophilic hormones, in addition to activating receptors on target cells and activating protein kinases, can also initiate cellular response through what system?

A

second-messenger systems

197
Q

Give an example of a hydrophilic hormone that makes use of the second messenger system.

A

epinephrine

198
Q

How does the second-messenger system work?

A

the interaction between the hormone and its receptor activates mechanisms in the plasma membrane that increase the concentration of second messengers within the target cell cytoplasm

199
Q

In the 1960s, Earl Sutherland showed

A

that activation of epinephrine receptors on liver cells increases intracellular levels of cAMP (a second messenger)

200
Q

What was the first second messenger system to be described?

A

the epinephrine-cAMP second messenger system

201
Q

What are two additional lipid messengers other than cAMP?

A

inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG)

202
Q

Do receptors that activate second messengers manufacture the second messenger themselves?

A

No, they don’t

203
Q

How do receptors that activate second messengers induce production of second messengers?

A

The binding of the hormone to its receptor causes G proteins to shuttle within the plasma membrane from the receptor to the second-messenger-generating enzyme

204
Q

How do G proteins work in the context of epinephrine? (2)

A

G proteins activate an enzyme called adenylyl cyclase, which catalyzes the formation of the second messenger cAMP from ATP; cAMP then diffuses within the cytoplasm and binds/activates protein kinases

205
Q

What is the effect of cAMP dependent protein kinases in liver cells?

A

activates enzymes that convert glycogen into glucose

206
Q

What is the effect of cAMP dependent protein kinases in cardiac muscle cells?

A

increase in the rate and force of cardiac muscle contraction

207
Q

The cellular response to a hormone primarily depends on

A

the type of G protein activated by the hormone’s receptor

208
Q

Can a single hormone have distinct actions in two different cell types?

A

Yes, if the receptors in those two cells are linked to different G proteins

209
Q

T/F: the binding of a hydrophilic hormone is irreversible.

A

False, the binding of a hydrophilic hormone is reversible and very brief

210
Q

What deactivates hydrophilic hormones following binding?

A

The target cell deactivates the hormone and also contains specific enzymes that rapidly deactivate second messengers and protein kinases

211
Q

What are the enzymes involved in the cAMP-dependent protein kinase stimulation of cardiac muscle cells?

A

a G protein is linked to the IP-3 generating enzyme phospholipase C, and IP-3 regulates the release of Ca2+ ions, which causes muscle contractions

212
Q

What is another name for the pituitary gland?

A

hypophysis

213
Q

What is another name for the hypophysis?

A

pituitary gland

214
Q

Describe the location of the pituitary gland.

A

hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain posterior to the optic chasm

215
Q

The pituitary gland is composed of which two parts?

A

anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

216
Q

What are the fibrous and glandular parts of the pituitary gland?

A

the fibrous part is the posterior pituitary and the glandular part is the anterior pituitary

217
Q

T/F: The anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary glands have different embryonic origins.

A

True: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary have different embryonic origins.

218
Q

T/F: The anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary glands are regulated by different control system.s

A

True: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary are regulated by different control systems

219
Q

Why does the posterior pituitary appear fibrous?

A

because it contains axons that originate in cell bodies within the hypothalamus and that extend along the stalk of the pituitary as fibers

220
Q

How does the fibrous nature of the posterior pituitary form during development?

A

As the floor of the third ventricle of the brain forms the hypothalamus, part of the neural tissue grows downward to produce the posterior pituitary

221
Q

What is diuresis?

A

urine production

222
Q

What is the relationship between ADH and diuresis?

A

ADH inhibits diuresis

223
Q

What is the relationship between alcohol and ADH?

A

alcohol inhibits ADH secretion, which leads to frequent urination

224
Q

In mammals, oxytocin is responsible for what ejection reflex?

A

oxytocin is responsible for the milk ejection reflex, in which sensory receptors in the nipples send impulses to the hypothalamus and trigger the release of oxytocin

225
Q

T/F: Does oxytocin secretion continue after childbirth in women?

A

True, continues after childbirth in women who are breastfeeding

226
Q

What is a related posterior pituitary hormone to oxytocin?

A

arginine vasotocin

227
Q

What does arginine vasotocin do? (2)

A

acts like oxytocin but in nonmammalian species; in chickens and sea turtles, arginine vasotocin activates oviduct contraction during egg laying

228
Q

Beyond reflexes, how is oxytocin involved in behavior?

A

it is an important regulator of reproductive behavior in men and women

229
Q

Give two examples of how oxytocin regulates reproductive behavior.

A

promotes pair bonding; regulates sexual responses like arousal and orgasm

230
Q

For reproductive behavior, oxytocin behaves much like a

A

a neurotransmitter in a paracrine fashion inside the CNS

231
Q

Where are ADH and oxytocin actually produced, and why is this confusing?

A

ADH and oxytocin are actually produced by neuron cell bodies located in the hypothalamus; they’re transported along the axon tract between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary and are stored in the posterior pituitary

232
Q

What kind of reflex secretes ADH and oxytocin?

A

neuroendocrine reflex, because both the nervous and endocrine systems are involved

233
Q

How many hormones does the anterior pituitary produce?

A

seven

234
Q

Where does the anterior pituitary develop from?

A

develops from a pouch of epithelial tissue that pinches off from the roof of the embryo’s mouth

235
Q

T/F: the anterior pituitary is part of the nervous system.

A

FALSE, the anterior pituitary is NOT part of the nervous system

236
Q

Several hormones of the anterior pituitary are collectively referred to as

A

tropic hormones (tropins)

237
Q

What do tropic hormones do?

A

tropic hormones act on other endocrine glands to stimulate secretion of hormones produced by the target gland

238
Q

The anterior pituitary secretes what three structurally similar families of hormones?

A

peptide hormones; protein hormones; glycoprotein hormones

239
Q

What is another name for the growth hormone?

A

somatotropin

240
Q

Does the growth hormone stimulate bone growth directly?

A

No, it stimulates bone growth indirectly

241
Q

How many amino acids long are protein hormones?

A

a single chain of approximately 200 amino acids

242
Q

Other than stimulating milk production, what else does prolactin do? (3)

A

regulation of water/ion transport across epithelia; stimulation of organs that nourish the young; activation of parental behaviors

243
Q

What are the largest and most complex hormones known?

A

glycoprotein hormones

244
Q

Describe the structure of glycoprotein hormones.

A

dimers, containing alpha/beta subunits each 100 amino acids in size with covalently linked sugar residues

245
Q

Which subunit of the glycoprotein hormone is common to all three glycoprotein hormones?

A

alpha subunit - the beta subunit differs which is what gives these hormones specificity

246
Q

What is another name for the thyroid-stimulating hormone?

A

thyrotropin

247
Q

FSH and LH are collectively referred to as

A

gonadotropins

248
Q

What structure controls the production and secretion of anterior pituitary hormones?

A

hypothalamus

249
Q

How does the hypothalamus control anterior pituitary secretions?

A

control is exerted hormonally rather than by nerve axons, using releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones

250
Q

What are the two types of hormones secreted by neurons in the hypothalamus?

A

releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones

251
Q

Describe and name the system that circulates releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus.

A

the two hormones diffuse into blood capillaries at the base of the hypothalamus, then drain into small veins that run to the anterior pituitary; called the hypothalamohypophyseal portal system

252
Q

What is a portal system?

A

circulatory structure in which two capillary beds are linked by veins

253
Q

Which hormone stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone?

A

thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

254
Q

Which hormone stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone?

A

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

255
Q

Which hormone stimulates the release of FSH and LH?

A

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

256
Q

Which hormones stimulates the release of the growth hormone?

A

growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)

257
Q

Which hormones stimulate the release of prolactin?

A

TRH, oxytocin, vasoactive intestinal peptide

258
Q

Which hormone inhibits the release of growth hormone?

A

somatostatin (a.k.a. growth hormone inhibiting hormone - GHIH)

259
Q

Which hormone inhibits the secretion of prolactin?

A

prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF) which is actually dopamine

260
Q

Which hormone inhibits the secretion of melanocyte-stimulating hormone?

A

MSH-inhibiting hormone (MIH)

261
Q

The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary are under what kind of feedback control?

A

negative feedback control

262
Q

TSH causes the thyroid gland to release

A

thyroxine

263
Q

What does thyroxine do?

A

affect metabolic rate

264
Q

Give an example of a hormone that performs negative feedback inhibition on the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus

A

thyroxine

265
Q

What specific element is needed for the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine?

A

iodine

266
Q

What kind of areas lack iodine?

A

areas distant from seacoasts

267
Q

If there is insufficient iodine and therefore insufficient thyroxine, what happens?

A

the hypothalamus/anterior pituitary release more TRH and TSH

268
Q

What happens with elevated levels of TSH resulting from an iodine deficiency?

A

the cells enlarge to attempt to produce more thyroxine but the thyroid gland keeps getting bigger and bigger - a condition known as goiter

269
Q

What is ovulation?

A

explosive release of a mature egg (oocyte) from an ovary

270
Q

As the oocyte grows, what hormones are released?

A

as the oocyte grows, follicle cells surrounding it produce estrogen, which eventually tells the hypothalamus that the oocyte is ready for ovluation

271
Q

What results after peak estrogen levels?

A

surge of LH from the anterior pituitary, which causes the release of the oocyte into the oviduct

272
Q

When is the ovulation cycle’s positive feedback mechanism terminated?

A

the remaining tissue from the ovarian follicle forms the corpus luteum, which secretes estrogen and progesterone which inhibit FSH and LH

273
Q

What is hypophysectomy?

A

surgical removal of the pituitary gland

274
Q

Which anterior pituitary glands work through direct effects? (3)

A

growth hormone; prolactin; MSH

275
Q

Which anterior pituitary glands work through indirect effects? (4)

A

ACTH, TSH, LH, FSH

276
Q

Gigantism is caused by

A

the excessive secretion of GH in a growing child

277
Q

Pituitary dwarfism is caused by

A

a deficiency in GH secretion during childhood

278
Q

The growth hormone stimulates what factors to promote bone growth?

A

the growth hormone stimulates the production of insulin-like growth factors, which are produced by the liver and bone in response to GH stimulation

279
Q

What do the insulin-like growth factors do?

A

stimulate cell division in the epiphyseal growth plates, and thus elongation of the bones

280
Q

How does GH function in adults?

A

regulates protein, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism

281
Q

What is ghrelin?

A

peptide hormone released by the stomach between meals that is a potent stimulator of GH release, which implies an important linkage between nutrient intake and GH production

282
Q

How does excessive GH secretion manifest in adults?

A

acromegaly, which can include a protruding jaw, elongated fingers, or thickening of skin

283
Q

In amphibians, what does prolactin do?

A

promotes transformation of salamanders from terrestrial forms to aquatic breeding adults

284
Q

The thyroid and parathyroid glands are derived from

A

primitive pharynx, which is the most anterior segment of the digestive tract

285
Q

Which two glands are derived from the primitive pharynx?

A

thyroid and parathyroid glands

286
Q

Where is the thyroid gland found? (2)

A

anterior to the heart; in humans, shaped like a bow tie and below the Adam’s apple

287
Q

What are the only molecules in the body to contain iodine?

A

thyroid hormones (thyroxine contains 4 I atoms, triiodothyronine contains 3 I atoms)

288
Q

Adults with hypothyroidism suffer from

A

low metabolism due to underproduction of thyroxine, which basically means a reduced ability to make use of carbs and fats

289
Q

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism? (3)

A

fatigue, overweight, chills

290
Q

What is the effect of hypothyroidism in children? (3)

A

impairs growth; impairs brain development; impairs reproductive maturity

291
Q

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism? (4)

A

weight loss; nervousness; high metabolism; overheating

292
Q

Thyroid hormones regulate enzymes controlling what types of metabolism?

A

regulate enzymes controlling carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in most cells

293
Q

In developing humans, what is the relationship between thyroid hormones and the CNS?

A

thyroid hormones promote growth of neurons and stimulate maturation of the CNS

294
Q

What is cretinism?

A

severe mental retardation resulting from hypothyroidism

295
Q

Why are thyroid hormones important in amphibians?

A

they direct metamorphosis from an aquatic larva to a terrestrial carnivore

296
Q

The thyroid/parathyroid glands work with ___ to regulate calcium homeostasis.

A

vitamin D

297
Q

The thyroid/parathyroid glands work with vitamin D to regulate

A

calcium homeostasis

298
Q

Calcitonin may have an important role in

A

bone remodeling in rapidly growing children

299
Q

The parathyroid gland is composed of

A

four small glands attached to the thyroid.

300
Q

A significant fall in blood Ca2+ levels can lead to

A

severe muscle spasms

301
Q

PTH stimulates osteoclasts to

A

dissolve calcium phosphate crystals of the bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the blood

302
Q

PTH stimulates the kidneys to

A

reabsorb Ca2+ from the urine, which leads to the activation of vitamin D

303
Q

Vitamin D is produced in the

A

skin from a cholesterol derivative in response to UV light

304
Q

Vitamin D is a derivative of

A

cholesterol

305
Q

How does the Vitamin D molecule become activated?

A

gains one OH group from an enzyme in the liver, gains another OH group from an enzyme in the kidneys (stimulated by PTH)

306
Q

What is the name for the active form of Vitamin D?

A

1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D.

307
Q

What does the activated Vitamin D hormone do?

A

stimulates intestinal reabsorption of Ca2+ and helps raise Ca2+ blood levels to properly mineralize bone

308
Q

What is rickets?

A

a condition of poor bone formation, caused by a deficiency in vitamin D

309
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

just above each kidney

310
Q

Each adrenal gland is composed of (2)

A

an inner portion called the adrenal medulla and an outer layer called the adrenal cortex

311
Q

From where does the adrenal medulla receive neural input?

A

axons of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

312
Q

The hormones secreted from the adrenal cortex are all ____ and are referred to collectively as ______.

A

they are all steroids and are collectively referred to as corticosteroids

313
Q

What does cortisol do?

A

acts to maintain glucose homeostasis

314
Q

In mammals, hormones that maintain glucose homeostasis are called

A

glucocorticoids

315
Q

The secretion of glucocorticoids is regulated by

A

ACTH from the anterior pituitary

316
Q

What do glucocorticoids do?

A

stimulate breakdown of muscle protein into amino acids, which are carried by blood to liver; stimulate liver to produce enzymes needed for gluconeogenesis

317
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

conversion of amino acids into glucose

318
Q

When is glucose synthesis from protein especially important?

A

during long periods of fasting or exercise

319
Q

Glucocorticoids are secreted in large amounts in response to

A

stress

320
Q

What is prednisone?

A

cortisol derivative used as an anti-inflammatory agent

321
Q

What is the other major corticosteroid, apart from glucocorticoids?

A

aldosterone

322
Q

Aldosterone is classified as a

A

mineralocorticoid because it regulates mineral balance

323
Q

What activates the secretion of aldosterone? (2)

A

activated by angiotensin II, a product of the renin-angiotensin system; high blood K+

324
Q

What are aldosterone’s primary actions? (2)

A

reabsorbs Na+ from urine in kidneys; excretes K+ into urine in kidneys

325
Q

What connects the pancreas to the duodenum?

A

pancreatic duct

326
Q

What does the pancreas secrete?

A

bicarbonate ions and digestive enzymes into small intestine through the pancreatic duct

327
Q

Insulin is secreted by

A

the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans

328
Q

Glucagon is secreted by

A

the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans

329
Q

When a person eats carbs, what happens to blood glucose?

A

blood glucose rises

330
Q

When blood glucose rises, what happens? (2)

A

secretion of insulin by beta cells is activated; secretion of glucagon by the alpha cells is inhibited

331
Q

Insulin promotes the cellular uptake of

A

glucose into the liver, muscle, and fat cells

332
Q

Insulin activates the storage of

A

glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscle or as fat in fat cells

333
Q

What happens to insulin and glucagon between meals?

A

insulin secretion decreases and glucagon secretion increases, which promotes hydrolysis of stored glycogen or fat

334
Q

T/F: insulin is the only hormone that promotes movement of glucose from blood into cells.

A

true, insulin is the only hormone that promotes movement of glucose from blood into cells.

335
Q

Give another names for type I diabetes.

A

insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

336
Q

People with type I diabetes lack

A

insulin-secreting beta cells and thus produce no insulin

337
Q

How do we treat type I diabetes?

A

insulin injections

338
Q

Why must insulin be injected?

A

because it’s a peptide, if taken orally it would be digested

339
Q

What is more common, type I or type II diabetes?

A

type II diabetes

340
Q

Give another name for type II diabetes.

A

noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

341
Q

What happens in type II diabetes?

A

patient has normal insulin levels, but cells have a reduced sensitivity to insulin

342
Q

What percentage of diabetes cases are type II diabetes?

A

90%

343
Q

Where is the pineal gland located?

A

roof of the third ventricle of the brain

344
Q

The pineal gland evolved from

A

a medial light-sensitive eye

345
Q

The pineal eye is still present in

A

primitive fish and some modern reptiles

346
Q

Describe melatonin levels during various times o the day.

A

Melatonin levels in the blood increase in darkness and fall during daytime.

347
Q

The secretion of melatonin is regulated by

A

the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus

348
Q

The suprachiasmatic nucleus functions as

A

the major biological clock in vertebrates

349
Q

Where does T cell production occur in vertebrates?

A

thymus

350
Q

The right atrium of the heart secretes

A

atrial natriuretic hormone

351
Q

What does atrial natriuretic hormone do? (2)

A

stimulates kidneys to excrete salt and water in the urine; acts antagonistically to aldosterone

352
Q

The kidneys independently secrete the hormone

A

erythropoietin

353
Q

What is erythropoietin?

A

hormone that stimulates bone barrow to produce red blood cells

354
Q

Prior to insect molting, neurosecretory cells on the surface of the insect brain secrete

A

prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), a small peptide

355
Q

What does prothoracicotropic hormone do?

A

stimulates a gland in the thorax called the prothoracic gland to produce molting hormone

356
Q

Give another name for the molting hormone.

A

ecdysone

357
Q

What does ecdysone do?

A

high levels of edysone bring out the biochemical conditions for molting to occur

358
Q

What does DES stand for?

A

diethylstilbestrol

359
Q

What is DES?

A

synthetic estrogen given to pregnant women from 1940 to 1970 to prevent miscarriages

360
Q

Why was DES infamous?

A

discovered that daughters exposed to DES had a higher chance of developing cervical cancer later in life

Biology 2312 (11 decks)

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