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Biology 2312 > Chapter 49 > Flashcards

Chapter 49 Flashcards

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1
Q

Blood is what type of tissue?

A

connective tissue

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2
Q

What is blood composed of?

A

plasma; different kinds of cells; formed elements

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3
Q

What are blood platelets?

A

fragments of cells produced in bone marrow

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4
Q

What are the three main functions of circulating blood?

A

transportation; regulation; protection

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5
Q

Where in blood are nutrient molecules carried?

A

plasma

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6
Q

How does the blood function as a regulator?

A

transports regulatory hormones from endocrine glands; participates in temperature regulation through contraction/dilation of blood vessels underneath epidermis

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7
Q

What percentage of plasma is water?

A

92% of plasma is water

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8
Q

What solutes are found in plasma?

A

nutrients; wastes; hormones; ions; proteins

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9
Q

How are nutrients and wastes transported through blood?

A

dissolved in the plasma

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10
Q

What are the predominant ions present in blood?

A

Na+, Cl-, HCO3-

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11
Q

What other ions are found in trace quantities in the plasma?

A

Ca2+; Mg2+; Cu2+; K+; Zn2+

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12
Q

What produces most of the plasma proteins?

A

the liver produces most of the plasma proteins

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13
Q

Which protein is most predominant in plasma?

A

albumin

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14
Q

What are the three most important plasma proteins?

A

albumin; alpha/beta globulins; fibrinogen

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15
Q

What is the function of alpha/beta globulins?

A

serve as carriers of lipids and steroid hormones

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16
Q

Which protein serves as a carrier of lipid/steroid hormones?

A

alpha/beta globulins

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17
Q

What is the function of fibrinogen?

A

required for blood clotting

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18
Q

What is serum?

A

blood plasma without fibrinogen

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19
Q

What percentage of blood plasma is made up of proteins?

A

7%

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20
Q

What percentage of plasma proteins is made up of albumin?

A

54%

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21
Q

What percentage of plasma proteins is made up of globulins?

A

38%

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22
Q

What percentage of plasma proteins is made up of fibrinogen?

A

7%

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23
Q

What percentage of plasma is made up of other solutes?

A

1.5%

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24
Q

What is the concentration of RBCs in blood?

A

4-6 million RBCs per mm^3 blood

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25
Q

What is the concentration of platelets in blood?

A

150,000-300,000 platelets per mm^3 blood

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26
Q

What is the technical name for platelets?

A

thrombocytes

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27
Q

What are the three formed elements in blood?

A

erythrocytes; leukocytes; thrombocytes

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28
Q

What is hematocrit?

A

fraction of total blood volume occupied by erythrocytes

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29
Q

What is the hematocrit in humans?

A

45%

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30
Q

Mature mammalian erythrocytes lack

A

nuclei

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31
Q

In vertebrates, hemoglobin is found

A

only in erythrocytes

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32
Q

In invertebrates, the oxygen-binding pigment is found

A

also in the plasma

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33
Q

What percentage of cells in human blood are leukocytes?

A

less than 1%

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34
Q

Which are larger, erythrocytes or leukocytes?

A

leukocytes

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35
Q

How are leukocytes different from erythrocytes?

A

they have nuclei; they can diffuse into and out of capillaries through intercellular spaces

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36
Q

What are the two broad categories of leukocytes?

A

granular leukocytes; non-granular leukocytes

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37
Q

Granular leukocytes include

A

neutrophils; eosinophils; basophils

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38
Q

Nongranular leukocytes include

A

monocytes; lymphocytes

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39
Q

In humans, which leukocyte is the most numerous?

A

neutrophils

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40
Q

Rank the prevalence of leukocytes in humans from most common to least common.

A

neutrophiles; lymphocytes; monocytes; eosinophils; basophils

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41
Q

Erythrocytes and most leukocytes descend from which progenitor cell?

A

myeloid stem cells

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42
Q

Lymphocytes descend from which progenitor cell?

A

lymphoid stem cells

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43
Q

What is the approximate diameter of a platelet?

A

3 micrometers

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44
Q

When a blood vessel is injured, what does the liver do?

A

releases prothrombin, which converts fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin, which aggregates to form a clot

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45
Q

Generally speaking, formed elements arise from

A

stem cells

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46
Q

(T/F) Formed elements have an finite life span.

A

True, formed elements have a finite life span

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47
Q

Old cell fragments are digested by

A

phagocytic cells of the spleen

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48
Q

All formed elements develop from

A

pluripotent stem cells

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49
Q

What is hematopoiesis?

A

production of blood cells occurring in the bone marrow

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50
Q

Hematopoiesis generates what two types of stem cells?

A

lymphoid stem cells; myeloid stem cells

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51
Q

When O2 available in the blood deceases, what does the kidney do?

A

converts plasma protein into erythropoietin (a hormone)

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52
Q

What is the function of erythropoietin?

A

stimulates production of erythrocytes from myeloid stem cells in process called erythropoiesis

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53
Q

What is erythropoiesis?

A

production of RBCs from myeloid stem cells when blood O2 is low

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54
Q

(T/F) Mature erythrocytes in all vertebrates are de-nucleated.

A

False, mature erythrocytes are de-nucleated only in mammals. Erythrocytes of all other vertebrates remain nucleated

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55
Q

What are megakaryocytes?

A

precursor cell of platelets (is pinched off)

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56
Q

What happens first when a blood vessel is broken/cut

A

smooth muscle in vessel wall contracts to constrict vessel

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57
Q

What happens second when a blood vessel is broken/cut?

A

platelets accumulate at injury site and form a plug

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58
Q

What happens third when a blood vessel is broken/cut?

A

prothrombin is converted to thrombin in the presence of platelets, and thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin which comes out of solution

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59
Q

What happens fourth when a blood vessel is broken/cut?

A

fibrin threads trap RBCs and form a clot

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60
Q

What happens fifth when a blood vessel is broken/cut?

A

once tissue damage is healed, clot is dissolved

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61
Q

Which organisms use water as their circulatory fluid?

A

sponges; most cnidarians

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62
Q

How do sponges circulate water as their circulatory fluid?

A

pass water through a series of channels in bodies

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63
Q

How do cnidarians circulate water as their circulatory fluid?

A

circulate water through a gastrovascular cavity which can work because the body wall is only 2 cells thick so each cell is either in direct contact w/ outside or gastrovascular cavity

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64
Q

Which organisms have pseudocoeloms?

A

roundworms; rotifers

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65
Q

What are the two main types of circulatory systems?

A

open; closed

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66
Q

Open circulatory systems are typically found in

A

mollusks; arthropods

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67
Q

What is the characteristic feature of open circulatory systems?

A

no distinction between circulating fluid and extracellular fluid of body tissues; fluid is called hemolymph

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68
Q

In insects, what pumps hemolymph?

A

heart

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69
Q

In insects, how does hemolymph “return” for oxygenation?

A

fluid drains back into the central cavity

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70
Q

Closed circulatory systems are typically found in

A

cephalopod mollusks; annelids; all vertebrates

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71
Q

What is the characteristic feature of closed circulatory systems?

A

blood is always inclosed within blood vessels and transport it to and away from the heart

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72
Q

In annelids, what pumps blood?

A

dorsal vessel contracts rhythmically; blood is pushed through 5 connecting arteries (which also serve as pumps) to a ventral vessel which transports blood posteriorly until re-entering dorsal vessel

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73
Q

Describe the heart in chordates.

A

simple tubular heart that was a specialized zone of the ventral artery that contracted in peristaltic waves

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74
Q

Describe the fish heart (generally).

A

a tube with four structures arrayed one after the other to form 2 pumping chambers

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75
Q

How many pumping chambers does the fish heart have?

A

2

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76
Q

What comprises the first chamber of the fish heart?

A

sinus venous; atrium

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77
Q

What comprises the second chamber of the fish heart?

A

ventricle; conus arteriosus

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78
Q

What is the order of contraction for the fish heart?

A

sinus venous; atrium; ventricle; conus arteriosus

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79
Q

In fishes, where does the electric impulse stimulating contraction originate?

A

originates in the sinus venosus

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80
Q

In all vertebrates except fishes, where does the electric impulse stimulating contraction originate?

A

sinoatrial (SA) node

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81
Q

What is the order for blood flow in fishes?

A

atrium > ventricle > conus arteriosus > gills > respiratory capillaries > systemic capillaries > sinus venosus

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82
Q

What is the serious limitation of the fish circulatory system?

A

when blood passes through capillaries in the gills, the blood pressure drops significantly, which slows circulation and limits oxygen delivery

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83
Q

Evolutionarily speaking, which circulatory system came after fishes?

A

amphibian

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84
Q

What is one major change introduced by the amphibian/reptile circulatory system?

A

double circulation - blood is pumped by heart to lungs via pulmonary artery and returns to heart via pulmonary vein to be sent to the body

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85
Q

What are the two components of double circulation?

A

pulmonary circulation; systemic circulation

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86
Q

What is pulmonary circulation?

A

movement of blood between heart and lungs

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87
Q

What is systemic circulation?

A

movement of blood between heart and rest of body

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88
Q

How does the amphibian heart prevent the mixing of oxygenated blood with deoxygenated blood?

A

atrium is divided into two

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89
Q

Describe the right and left atria in the amphibian heart.

A

right atria receives deoxygenated blood from body; left atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs

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90
Q

How many ventricles does the amphibian heart have?

A

one

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91
Q

What is the consequence of the amphibian heart having only one ventricle?

A

separation of pulmonary and systemic circulation is incomplete

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92
Q

How do amphibians reduce the extent of mixing caused by the incomplete separation of the pulmonary and systemic circuits?

A

recesses in the ventricular wall; conus arterioles is partially separated by a dividing wall

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93
Q

The conus arteriosus directs blood into

A

deoxygenated blood goes into the pulmonary arteries whereas oxygenated blood goes to the aorta

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94
Q

What is the major artery of the systemic circuit?

A

aorta

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95
Q

What additional circulatory feature is present in amphibians who live in water?

A

pulmocutaneous circuit that sends blood to both the lungs and skin

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96
Q

Evolutionarily speaking, what came after the amphibian circulatory system?

A

reptile

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97
Q

What major circulatory modifications are present in reptiles?

A

they have separated atria AND partially divided ventricles; conus arteriosus is incorporated into trunks of large arteries leaving the heart

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98
Q

The crocodile’s circulatory system is unusual in that

A

it has two completely separated ventricles divided by a complete septum (unlike all other reptiles)

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99
Q

How many chambers does the mammal/bird/crocodile heart have?

A

four chambers (two separate atria, two separate ventricles)

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100
Q

What explains the remarkable similarity between the hearts of birds and mammals?

A

convergent evolution

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101
Q

Describe the order of structures in the mammal/bird heart that blood goes through.

A

deoxygenated blood enters right atrium > right ventricle > pulmonary artery > lungs > pulmonary vein > left atrium > left ventricle > aorta

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102
Q

How many cycles are in each mammal/bird heart pump?

A

2

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103
Q

Describe the two-cycle pump in the mammal/bird heart.

A

both atria simultaneously contract, which empties blood into ventricles; in second cycle, both ventricles simultaneously push blood into pulmonary or systemic circuits

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104
Q

Why was the double circulatory system important, evolutionarily speaking?

A

allowed for the evolution of endothermy, which requires more efficient circulation to support high metabolic rate

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105
Q

What happens to the sinus venosus in the amphibian heart?

A

reduced in size from fish heart

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106
Q

What happens to the sinus venosus in the reptilian heart?

A

reduced in size from amphibian heart

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107
Q

What happens to the sinus venosus in the mammal/bird heart?

A

no longer present as separate chamber; some tissue remains in wall of right atrium

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108
Q

What is the pacemaker in the mammal/bird heart, and where is it located?

A

the sinoatrial (SA) node, located in wall of right atrium

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109
Q

The sinoatrial (SA) node is a derivative of

A

the sinus venosus in fish

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110
Q

What is the cardiac cycle comprised of?

A

the two contractions plus resting period between them

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111
Q

What are the two pairs of valves in the heart?

A

atrioventricular (AV) valve; semilunar valves

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112
Q

What do AV valves do?

A

maintain unidirectional blood flow between atria and ventricles

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113
Q

The AV valve on the right side is called

A

tricuspid valve

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114
Q

The AV valve on the left side is called

A

bicuspid (mitral) valve

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115
Q

What do the semilunar valves do?

A

ensure one-way flow out of ventricles into arterial systems

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116
Q

The semilunar valve on the right side is called

A

pulmonary valve

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117
Q

Where is the pulmonary valve located?

A

exit of right ventricle

118
Q

The semilunar valve on the left side is called

A

aortic valvue

119
Q

Where is the aortic valve located?

A

exit of left ventricle

120
Q

When are the first set of valves open relative to the other set of valves?

A

the pulmonary and aortic valves are CLOSED when the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are OPEN (and vice versa)

121
Q

What makes the Lub sound?

A

when the tricuspid and bicuspid valves shut

122
Q

What makes the Dub sound?

A

when the pulmonary and aortic valves shut

123
Q

The cardiac cycle begins as

A

blood returns to resting heart through veins that empty into right and left atria

124
Q

What stimulates the the two AV valves to open as the atria fill with blood?

A

rising pressure in the atria stimulates AV valves to open

125
Q

Are the ventricles completely filled with blood from the atria in one shot?

A

No, ventricles become 80% filled with blood when the AV valves open, but contraction of the atria tops up the remaining 20%

126
Q

How much blood (in mL) does the ventricle receive, on average, in a resting person?

A

80 mL

127
Q

What is the ventricular diastole?

A

period of time in which heart muscles relax and allows ventricles to fill with blood

128
Q

What is the ventricular systole?

A

period of time in which ventricles contracts and pumps blood into arteries

129
Q

What opens the semilunar valves?

A

the pressure/buildup of blood in the ventricles

130
Q

What is the name for the structures that initiate action potentials for membrane depolarization?

A

autorhythmic fibers/cells, which are self-excitable muscle cells

131
Q

What is the most important group of autorhythmic cells?

A

sinoatrial node

132
Q

How does the SA node act as a pacemaker for the heart?

A

produces spontaneous action potentials at a faster rate than other autorhythmic cells

133
Q

Why are the SA action potentials spontaneous?

A

because of constant leakage of Na+ ions into the cell that depolarize the membrane

134
Q

How often does the SA node generate an action potential?

A

once every 0.6 sec = 100 times a minute

135
Q

Each depolarization initiated by the SA node can be transmitted through what two pathways?

A

one to cardiac muscle fibers in left atrium; one to right atrium and AV node

136
Q

Why is the rapid spread of depolarization in the heart possible?

A

there are special conducting fibers present; cardiac muscle cells are coupled by groups of gap junctions within intercalated disks

137
Q

What prevents multiple chambers getting excited at once?

A

sheet of connective tissue separating atria from ventricles blocks spread of excitation

138
Q

How is the depolarization from the atria to the ventricles transmitted?

A

via the AV node

139
Q

When transmitting a depolarization from an atrium to a ventricle, what does the AV node do?

A

slows down the signal by 0.1 sec to let atria finish contracting and empty blood

140
Q

Once the blood is in the ventricle, how does the AV node transmit the depolarization wave?

A

signal is sent to atrioventricular bundle

141
Q

What is another name for the atrioventricular bundle?

A

bundle of His

142
Q

What does the atrioventricular bundle do?

A

transmits the depolarization to Purkinje fibers

143
Q

What do Purkinje fibers do?

A

stimulate myocardial cells of the left and right ventricles which causes contraction

144
Q

Describe the overall path of signal transmission in the contraction of the heart.

A

SA node > AV node > AV bundle (bundle of His) > interventricular septum > Purkinje fibers > myocardial cells

145
Q

Contraction of the heart muscle is controlled by what molecular-level system?

A

Ca2+ ions; troponin/tropomyosin system like in skeletal muscle

146
Q

How is the shape of the action potential different in heart contractions?

A

rising phase due to influx of Na+; plateau phase leading to more sustained contraction due to opening of Ca2+ channels

147
Q

Why is the opening of Ca2+ channels during the sustained contraction important?

A

keeps the membrane depolarized while the Na+ channels are inactive, which leads to more voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum opening, which sustains the contraction

148
Q

How is the Ca2+ removed from the cytoplasm?

A

by a pump in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (like in skeletal muscle); a carrier in the plasma membrane pumps Ca2+ into interstitial space

149
Q

What graph shows the electrical activity of the heart?

A

electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG)

150
Q

When taking an EKG, where are the electrodes placed?

A

limbs and chest

151
Q

Depolarization of the heart causes

A

contraction

152
Q

Depolarization of the heart causes

A

relaxation

153
Q

The P wave of the EKG is produced by

A

depolarization of the atria

154
Q

The P wave of the EKG is associated with

A

atrial systole

155
Q

The Q-R-S wave of the EKG is produced by

A

depolarization of the ventricles

156
Q

The Q-R-S wave of the EKG is associated with

A

ventricular systole

157
Q

The T wave of the EKG is produced by

A

repolarization of the ventricles

158
Q

The T wave of the EKG is associated with

A

ventricles beginning diastole

159
Q

What do the pulmonary arteries do?

A

deliver deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to both right/left lungs

160
Q

What do the pulmonary veins do?

A

delivery oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium

161
Q

What are the first branches off the aorta?

A

coronary arteries

162
Q

What do the coronary arteries do?

A

supply oxygenated blood to heart muscle itself

163
Q

The systemic veins empty in what two major veins?

A

superior (drains upper body) and inferior (drains lower body) vena cava

164
Q

The superior/inferior vena cava empty into

A

right atrium

165
Q

What does a sphygmomanometer do?

A

measures blood pressure in brachial artery found on the inside part of arm, above elbow

166
Q

When the cuff is loosened, what happens to blood pressure?

A

eventually BP produced by heart is greater than constricting pressure of cuff so blood begins to flow

167
Q

What is systolic pressure?

A

peak pressure at which ventricles are contracting (point when ventricles are contracting)

168
Q

When the cuff is loosened further, what happens to BP?

A

pressure of cuff is lower than blood pressure throughout cardiac cycle

169
Q

What is diastolic pressure?

A

minimum pressure between heartbeats (point when ventricles are relaxed)

170
Q

In systolic/diastolic pressure, when are sounds heard?

A

no sounds heard when artery is always closed or artery always open; when artery alternates a pulse sound is heard

171
Q

Blood pressure is written as

A

ratio of systolic over diastolic pressure

172
Q

A healthy person in 20s should have a BP of

A

120/75

173
Q

BP units are

A

mmHg

174
Q

Hypertension is defined as

A

having a systolic pressure greater than 150 mm Hg OR a diastolic pressure greater than 90 mm Hg

175
Q

What is the subdivision of arteries?

A

arterioles

176
Q

What is the subdivision of veins?

A

venules

177
Q

What is the innermost layer of arteries/arterioles/veins/venules?

A

endothelium (epithelial sheet)

178
Q

What covers the endothelium of arteries/arterioles/veins/venules?

A

thin layer of elastic fibers; smooth muscle layer; connective tissue layer

179
Q

What comprises the walls of capillaries?

A

only endothelium (to allow for diffusion)

180
Q

What is the relationship between the diameter of a vessel and resistance to flow?

A

the narrower the vessel, the greater the frictional resistance to flow

181
Q

A vessel that is half as narrow as another has what times the frictional resistance?

A

A vessel that is half as narrow as another has 16x frictional resistance

182
Q

Which blood vessels provide the greatest resistance to blood flow?

A

small arteries and arterioles

183
Q

High BP results from

A

chronic vasoconstriction

184
Q

Vasoconstriction and vasodilation are important in regulating

A

body heat in both endo/ectotherms

185
Q

Increasing blood flow to the skin has what effect on body heat?

A

increases rate of heat exchange

186
Q

Decreasing blood flow to skin has what effect on body heat?

A

minimizes rate of heat exchange

187
Q

Every cell in the body is within what distance of a capillary?

A

100 micrometers

188
Q

How long are capillaries, on average?

A

1 mm long

189
Q

What is the diameter of capillaries, on average?

A

8 micrometers in diameter

190
Q

What is the diameter of an RBC?

A

5 to 7 micrometers

191
Q

Which vessel has the greatest TOTAL cross-sectional area of any vessel?

A

capillaries, because there so many of them

192
Q

Does blood travel through capillaries quickly or slowly?

A

quickly

193
Q

Describe how velocity and pressure of blood flow change as it moves through arterioles/capillaries/venules.

A

blood pressure/velocity decrease as it moves through arterioles/capillaries, but blood velocity increases as cross-sectional area decreases in the venules

194
Q

Most of the blood in the cardiovascular system is contained in which vessels?

A

in veins

195
Q

(T/F) Veins can expand to hold additional amounts of blood.

A

true

196
Q

What mechanisms are in place to help return blood to the heart from feet/legs?

A

skeletal muscles can contract to move blood by squeezing veins; venuous valves help blood move in one direction

197
Q

What is the venuous pump?

A

when skeletal muscles surrounding veins contract to squeeze blood upwards

198
Q

What are varicose veins?

A

veins in which there is too much blood such that the venuous valves stop working and blood pools in the veins

199
Q

(T/F) The cardiovascular system is considered a closed system.

A

true, because all its vessels are connected with one another

200
Q

A significant amount of water and solutes in blood plasma filter through capillary walls to become

A

interstitial (tissue) fluid

201
Q

Where does the fluid containing water/solutes in blood plasma leave the capillaries?

A

near the arteriole end where pressure is higher

202
Q

Where does the fluid containing water/solutes in blood plasma return to the capillaries?

A

near the venular ends

203
Q

How does the fluid containing water/solutes in blood plasma return to the capillaries?

A

osmosis

204
Q

High capillary BP can result in

A

too much interstitial fluid accumulating

205
Q

Why do pregnant women’s feet swell?

A

because their enlarged uterus compresses abdominal veins, which increases capillary BP, which results in increased interstitial fluid

206
Q

What is edema?

A

swelling of the feet

207
Q

Edema can result from

A

high capillary BP or low plasma protein concentration

208
Q

Low plasma protein concentration can be caused by

A

liver disease; insufficient dietary protein

209
Q

How does the fluid not returned to the capillaries return the cardiovascular system?

A

lymphatic system

210
Q

What kind of system is the lymphatic system?

A

open circulatory system

211
Q

The lymphatic system consists of

A

lymphatic capillaries; lymphatic vessels; lymphatic nodes; lymphatic organs

212
Q

What are the two primary lymphatic organs?

A

spleen; thymus

213
Q

Where does excess fluid in tissues go?

A

drains into blind-ended lymph capillaries with highly permeable walls

214
Q

What is lymph?

A

fluid that drains into lymph capillaries (originates from excess fluid in tissues)

215
Q

Describe lymphatic vessels.

A

resemble veins; have one-way valves

216
Q

What are the two major lymphatic vessels?

A

right lymphatic duct; thoracic duct

217
Q

Where do the two major lymphatic vessels drain?

A

left and right subclavian veins under the collarbones

218
Q

How is lymph moved in mammals?

A

skeletal muscles squeeze against lymphatic vessels (like in veins)

219
Q

(T/F) Lymphatic vessels can contract rhythmically.

A

True

220
Q

What is a lymph heart?

A

structure that propels movement of lymph; found in fishes, all amphibians, all reptiles, bird embryos, some adult birds

221
Q

What happens to lymph as it moves through lymph nodes/lymphatic organs?

A

modified by phagocytic cells

222
Q

Lymph nodes and lymphatic organs contain

A

germinal centers

223
Q

What are germinal centers?

A

sites where the activation and proliferation of lymphocytes occurs

224
Q

What is the leading cause of death in the US?

A

cardiovascular diaseases

225
Q

What is another name for atherosclerosis?

A

hardening of arteries

226
Q

What is the directionality of lymph flow in lymph vessels?

A

one-way

227
Q

What causes atherosclerosis?

A

accumulation within arteries of fatty materials, abnormal amounts of smooth muscle, deposits of cholesterol, deposits of fibrin, other debris

228
Q

The accumulations within arteries results in what effect?

A

increased vascular resistance which impedes blood flow

229
Q

How is cholesterol carried in the blood?

A

in lipoprotein complexes

230
Q

What are the two observed forms of cholesterol lipoproteins?

A

low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)

231
Q

Which lipoprotein is “good” cholesterol?

A

HDL

232
Q

Which lipoprotein is “bad” cholesterol?

A

LDL

233
Q

How do HDLs deal with cholesterol?

A

take cholesterol out of circulation and send it to the liver for elimination

234
Q

How do LDLs deal with cholesterol?

A

transport cholesterol to all cells of the body

235
Q

Why can LDLs be bad?

A

if cells have enough cholesterol, then the # of LDL receptors decreases, which leads to high levels of LDLs just circulating in blood, which can be deposited in blood vessels

236
Q

Atherosclerosis is promoted by

A

genetic factors; smoking; high BP; cholesterol

237
Q

What is arteriosclerosis?

A

when calcium is deposited in arterial walls

238
Q

Arteriosclerosis tends to occur when

A

atherosclerosis is severe

239
Q

What effect does arteriosclerosis have?

A

restricted blood flow; cannot expand like normal arteries; heart has to work harder

240
Q

What is the formal name for heart attacks?

A

myocardial infarctions

241
Q

Heart attacks result from

A

insufficient supply of blood to one or more parts of the heart muscle which causes myocardial cells to die; blood clots forming in coronary arteries

242
Q

Is recovery from a heart attack possible?

A

Yes, if the portion that was damaged was small enough so that the heart can still function as a unit

243
Q

What does angina pectoris mean?

A

chest pain

244
Q

What causes angina pectoris?

A

same reasons as heart attack, but not as severe

245
Q

Where does angina pectoris pain often occur?

A

left arm and shoulder

246
Q

Strokes are caused by

A

interference with blood supply to brain

247
Q

What are the two most common types of strokes?

A

hemorrhagic stroke; ischemic stroke

248
Q

What is a hemorrhagic stroke?

A

when a blood vessel bursts in the brain

249
Q

What is an ischemic stroke?

A

when blood flow in a cerebral artery is blocked by a blood clot or atherosclerosis

250
Q

(T/F) The autonomic nervous system initiates heartbeat.

A

FALSE. It doesn’t.

251
Q

If the autonomic nervous system doesn’t initiate heartbeat, what does it control?

A

regulates rhythm and force of contraction

252
Q

Heart rate is under the control of

A

the autonomic nervous system

253
Q

The cardiac center consists of what two neuronal centers that control heart rate?

A

cardioacceleratory center; cardioinhibitory center

254
Q

What does the cardioacceleratory center do?

A

secretes norepinephrine to increase heart rate

255
Q

Where does the cardioacceleratory center send signals?

A

SA node; AV node; myocardium

256
Q

What does the cardioacceleratory center use to send signals?

A

sends signals by way of sympathetic cardiac accelerator nerves

257
Q

What effect does norepinephrine have on heart rate?

A

increases heart rate

258
Q

(T/F) Only the autonomic nervous system can increase contractility of the heart its.f

A

False, the sympathetic nervous system can be stimulated to increase contractility of heart muscle

259
Q

What does the cardioinhibitory center do?

A

secretes acetylcholine, which slows heart rate by inhibiting formation of action potentials

260
Q

Where does the cardioinhibitory center send signals?

A

SA node; AV node

261
Q

What does the cardioinhibitory center use to send signals?

A

sends signals via parasympathetic fibers in vagus nerve

262
Q

Which nerve secretes acetylcholine?

A

vagus nerve

263
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute

264
Q

How is cardiac output calculated?

A

multiplying heart rate by stroke volume

265
Q

What is stroke volume?

A

volume of blood ejected by each ventricle per beat

266
Q

What is the average cardiac output in humans?

A

5 L/min

267
Q

During exercise, cardiac output can increase to

A

25 L/min, but not all target organs receive 5x the blood

268
Q

The arterial blood pressure (BP) depends on what two factors?

A

cardiac output (CO); resistance (R) to blood flow

269
Q

What is the equation relating BP, CO, and R?

A

BP = CO x R

270
Q

What detects changes in arterial blood pressure?

A

baroreceptors

271
Q

Where are the baroreceptors located?

A

arch of aorta; carotid arteries

272
Q

How do baroreceptors measure blood pressure?

A

detect expansion and contraction of arteries

273
Q

What happens when baroreceptors detect a fall in blood pressure?

A

number of impulses to cardiac center decreases; results in increased sympathetic stimulation and decreased parasympathetic stimulation

274
Q

What effect does a fall in blood pressure have on heart rate, stroke volume, and resistance?

A

increases heart rate, stroke volume, and resistance

275
Q

What happens when baroreceptors detect an increase in blood pressure?

A

number of impulses to cardiac center increases; results in decreased sympathetic stimulation and increased parasympathetic stimulation

276
Q

Baroreceptor feedback is what kind of feedback?

A

negative feedback loop

277
Q

What four hormones regulate blood volume?

A

ADH; aldosterone; atrial natriuretic hormone; nitric oxide

278
Q

What is another name for ADH?

A

vasopressin

279
Q

What secretes ADH?

A

posterior-pituitary gland

280
Q

When is ADH secreted?

A

in response to an increase in osmolarity of blood plasma

281
Q

What receptors detect the need to secrete ADH?

A

osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

282
Q

What happens when kidneys experience decreased blood flow?

A

kidney cells initiate release of renin into blood

283
Q

What does renin do?

A

activates angiotensin which stimulates vasoconstriction; stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone

284
Q

What does aldosterone do?

A

promotes retention of water/Na+ in kidneys

285
Q

What is the effect of excess Na+ on aldosterone?

A

less aldosterone is secreted by adrenals

286
Q

What secretes aldosterone?

A

adrenal cortex/adrenal glands

287
Q

Na+ excretion in urine is promoted by

A

atrial natriuretic hormone

288
Q

What does atrial natriuretic hormone do?

A

promotes Na+ excretion in urine

289
Q

What secretes atrial natriuretic hormone?

A

right atrium of heart

290
Q

When is atrial natriuretic hormone secreted?

A

in response to stretching caused by increased blood volume

291
Q

What produces NO?

A

endothelial cells of blood vessels

292
Q

What does NO do?

A

causes smooth muscle to relax and vessels to dilate

Biology 2312 (11 decks)

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