chapter 5 Flashcards
autobiographical memory?
memory of everyday events
LTM monitoring (2)
1) in-source (how you learned about some info)
2) in-realty (whether it happened or not)
what is LTM?
- large capacity
- contains memories for experiences/info accumulated throughout lifetime
4 types of LTM
1) procedural
2) Semantic
3) episodic
4) auto-biographical
what is procedural LTM memory?
- example
- memory for how you do things (procedure)
- example: tie shoes, ride bike
what is semantic LTM memory
- organized knowledge about the world, including knowledge about other words and factual information
- accumulated knowledge
- content and context
- don’t know when/where you learned something, its just in your knowledge
episodic LTM
- memories for events that happened to your personally
- knows context (location, feelings)
- allow to travel back in subjective time to reminisce about earlier episodes in life
- use in lab studies (did you previously see this?)
auto-biographical LTM memory
- memory for experiences/info related to yourself
- include facts (semantics) and episodic (remember who, what where you learned them)
6 factors that influence encoding
1) intentionality
2) levels of processing
3) self referencing
4) generation
5) production
6) spacing
what is encoding?
- process info and represent it in memory
- translate from visual, to sound, to words, to meaning to brain
what is retrieval
locate info in storage
access that info
intentionality (2)
intentional learning
- intention to encode something into LTM
- study for school, devote time
incidental learning
- learning do as function of living
- ex: watch tv show, can explain what its about, no effort
levels of processing
DEEP meaningful processing leads to more accurate recall than SHALLOW processing (depth-of-processing approach)
- achieve deeper level of processing when extract meaning (semantic)
3 levels of processing
- how would each be demonstrated in example
1) structural- (capital/small letters)
2) phonemic (rhyme?)
3) semantic (does it fit in sentence)– best recall (helps synthesize)
2 components of LoP
- elaboration: relate concept to prior knowledge, interconnect concepts, more detailed sentence=higher recall
- distinctiveness: items processed deeply “stand out”
self referencing
- deeper than deep
- remember more info when relate to oneself
- require organization and elaboration
- more likely to recall what does apply to yourself (rather than what doesnt)
3 reasons why self referencing is beneficial
1) cuing: self provides rich retrieval cues
2) elaboration: more likely to use elaborative rehearsal (like talking about yourself)
3) organization: concepts of self are well organized
where does deep processing of self referencing occur?
- left prefrontal cortex
early PET scan
where does self vs shallow processing occur?
- left prefrontal cortex
- crosses middle line to RH (more than deep processing)
what is generation encoding
- magifies LoP
- when you generate semantics its better, put in own words
- better when forming own rhyming words, or semantic meaning to match words
why does generation encoding work? (2)
- elaboration: elaborate the input
- attention: effortful, requires focused attention
production (encoding)
- ways to produce items that will increase recall (2 examples)
make certain items distinctive in context of other learning, if produce them using (ex: motor movement)
- better memory for items read aloud
why does production encoding work? (2)
distinctiveness- items stand out (ex; when read out loud, sang)
- requires extra movement
what is spacing while encoding?
- spread learning over days (dont cram)
- less time= more often
-tried to take advantage you are not mind wandering
why does spacing work? (3)
- attention: pay more attention when each items is feeling “fresh”
- release from proactive interference: harder to retrieve same info continuously
- context: change way of thinking about info, provides retrieval cues
what is encoding specificity principle?
ex used to measure
- retrieval context, similar to encoding context (when contexts don’t match, likely to forget)
- study/test with male/female voice
- “depends” on how you were tested
- more accurate, heard and answered same language/gender voice
2 caveats of encoding specificity principle
- out-shining effect: can be out shined by stronger manipulations
- context, psychological > physical, important to match way of thinking during encoding/retrieval more than environments appearance
what is an emotion
reaction
- to something in environment that influences memory
principle used to measure emotion
Polyanna Principle
- positivity effect: people tend to rate unpleasant past events more positively over time
- pleasant items usually processed more efficiently/accurately
what is mood
- sustained disposition
(can be in good mood, and have bad emotion)
ex: happy and see spider and scream
- provides context
2 types of mood memory
- mood dependent memory
- mood congruent memory
what is mood dependent memory?
- example
- context effect
- if encoding context=retrieval context, more likely to recall info
- fight with someone, remember negative things
- state of mind same as when first learned info and when retrieving it
- overtime unpleasant memories fade more than pleasant memories
what is mood congruent memory?
- more easily remember info that is congruent with mood (matches)
- happy mood, remember positive words
2 tests of retrieval
direct and indirect
what are direct tests of retrieval?
example
- recall test
- make explicit reference to learning episode
- reproduce items learned before
ex: writing exam, recognize item
what are indirect tests of memory
example
- recognition
- no reference to prior learning
- determine if something influences memory if prior knowledge influences behaviour now
ex: lexical decision
- measure RT, how quickly decide its a word
7 types of indirect tests of memory
1) perceptual/repetition priming
2) conceptual priming
3) stem completion
4) fragment completion
5) speeded word reading
6) priming
7) fragment completion test
perceptual/repetition priming
- quicker to respond to item if previously encountered same item
conceptual priming
example
- if activated related concept, will respond quicker
ex: say doctor, if previously shown nurse
stem completion
give beginnings of words (stems), fill in first word that comes to mind (been primed before)
fragment completion
- harder than stem completion
- given fragments of word (not stem), and have to fill in
speeded word reading
- faster to read words recently seen
priming
- measure effects of prior exposure by measure RT now
fragment completion test
- example
- how much info does someone need to visualize image
- can determined more graded image if primed before, quicker to respond
ex: camel drawing
2 types of amnesia
retrograde and anterograde
retrograde amnesia
- lose old info prior to damage
- longer period of memory loss, worse injury is
anterograde amnesia
- inability to make new memories
- often recall nothing on tests of explicit memory, able to perform accurately on tests of implicit memory
damage associated with anterograde amnesia
medial temporal lobe damage (and hippocampus)
patients with anterograde amnesia (2)
HM
- no new or explicit memories, able to do mirror drawing
Clive Wearing
- STM intact, has procedural memory (music/conduct), cant do direct memory tests, can be primed (no explicit memory)
explicit memory
- describe with words
- intentionally retrieve info you have previously learned
- recall or recognize information
- depth of processing impacts it
implicit memory
- task used to measure
- implied by changes in behaviour, not available for conscious recollection
- perform cognitive task (competing word that has missing letters)
- no impact by depth of processing
- repetition priming task: recent exposure to word increases likelihood to recall
what is dissociation?
- occurs when variable has large effects on test A, but no effects on test B
expertise
- people demonstrate impressive memory abilities, and exceptional performance on representative task
reasons experts better than novice
1) organize, form meaningful chunks
2) vivid visuals, emphasize distinctiveness
3) rehearse strategically
4) better at reconstructing missing portions of info from material partially remembered
5) better at monitoring progress of task
own ethnicity bias
- more accurate at identifying members of same ethnic group
- memory more accurate when stimuli are distinct
- expertise makes faces more distinctive
foresight bias
overconfident when study on exam performance
4 issues with autobiographic memory
1) schemas
2) source monitoring
3) reality monitoring
4) flashbulb memories
why are schemas an issue?
- personal experiences shape expectations and understanding, influence ways of info we encode
- not actually a memory, its a schema (ex: thanksgiving dinner)- often recall schema
- lead to consistency bias- fail to recognize we are changing based on experiences, think of ourselves as consistent
why is source monitoring issue?
example
determining source of memory/idea
- plagiarism
ex: robin thick song
wishful thinking bias (leads to errors in…)
tend to remember pleasant events, leads to errors in source monitoring
reality monitoring issue?
distinguish between real and imagined events
- did you say it or just think of saying it
flashbulb memories issues?
- memory for circumstances in which learned in surprising, emotionally arousing event
- people believe they can accurately recall minor details
- feel like memories are better because rehearse and practice
eye witness testimony
- relates to what type of interference?
inaccuracies can arise after event
- post event info: given misleading info than event they saw
- retroactive interference: trouble recalling old, new material is interfering
more errors in eye witness testimony if (5)
1) crime committed in stressful circumstance
2) long delay between event and testimony
3) misinformation is plausible (reasonable/probable)
4) social pressure
5) someone provided positive feedback
recovered memory perspective
- experience sexual abuse during childhood manage to forget memory for many years
- child more likely to forget if abuser is relative or trusted adult
- at later time, memory come flooding back into consciousness
false memory perspective
- most of recovered memories are incorrect memories, they are constructed stores about events that didnt occur
betrayal trauma
- how child repsonds when trusted adult betrays with sexual abuse
- child must actively inhibit memories of abuse to maintain attachment
3 types of anxiety disorders
1) generalized anxiety disorder
2) PTSD
3) social phobia
what is generalized anxiety disorder?
- experience at least 6 months of intense, long lasting anxiety/worry
what is PTSD
post traumatic stress disorder
- re-experiencing extremely traumatic event
what is social phobia?
- person becomes extremely anxious in social situations
to obtain a valid assessment of self-reference effect, stimuli must be classified in terms of…
participants ACTUAL mental activities, rather than in terms of the experimenters instructions
what is the constructivist approach?
we actively revise our memories in the light of new concerns and new information
students memory for how they learned about terrorist attacks of 9/11 according to research..
students were overconfident that their recall of event was accurate
participants listened to list of concrete nouns, told to visualize each object and imagine themselves using the object, important finding was..
people often imagined themselves using the object even if they were in the “visualize” condition
expertise is helpful in remember material because experts…
likely to recognize the material they must recall
to somewhere and forget what you were going to do, so retrace step and go back to inital place and remember what you were going if called
encoding-specificity principle
what does “expertise is typically context-specific” mean
persons expertise is often limited to one specific area, he or she lay have average-level performance in another area
form meta-anaylsis of psych journal
locate previous studies on a topic, statistically combine the results of those studies in order to determine overall effect
people are more likely to make errors in eyewitness testimony if..
there was believable post-event info
looking at picture of lemon pie, later someone asks if you what your fave dessert is, you answer lemon pie (even if its not), example is most like
implicit memory task
thinking about telling your friend something, later cant decide if you actually told your friend or imagined doing so
reality monitoring
in LTM, ecological validity is ..
relatively strong when research examines the correspondence between real-life event and memory of task
