chapter 10 Flashcards
why more likely to study language comprehension than language production
Ignore production because typically cannot manipulate ideas that an individual wishes to say or write
2 purposes of language production
persuade
- Produce language to persuade other people (see our point of view, convince if something is true or false)
influence
- Ex: Influence to like us, through storytelling, lecturing, laughing
word production of speaking
- rapid 2-3 word/sec
- selected from 75000-100000 words
- involves all components of language
- aided by gesticulation (hand movements)
how does speaking involved all components of language?
- Need to choose word so its grammatical, semantic, and phonological info are all correct
- Produce language need to be aware of pragmatics of speech, understand grammar (word order, syntax, morphemes), compromised in terms of phonemes
- A lot of motor movement involved in articulating
- Independent access- access each kind of info independently (vs retrieve all 3 at same time)
sentence production in speaking
- alternating periods of fluency and pauses
- pause during planning (need to plan what to say)
- longer for lengthy utterances (longer takes to plan, longer we pause)
- errors occur in
one popular type of speech error
slip of the tongue error
- errors in which sounds or entire words are rearranged between 2 or more different words
• reveal extensive knowledge around the sounds, structure, and meaning of the language we are speaking
5 types of speech error
1) word exchanges
2) sound exchanges
3) morpheme exchanges
4) anticipations
5) preservations
what are word exchanges (and example)
speech errors
- exchange same parts of speech (ex: noun for noun)
- tend to make at different distances in sentences
ex: I wrote a letter to my mother
- I wrote a mother to my letter
- mother and letter=noun
what are sound exchanges?
example
(speech errors)
aka spoonerisms
- exchange sounds between words (nearby words)
ex: There will be snow flurries
- there will be flow snurries
what are morpheme exchanges & example
speech errors
- moving meaningful parts of the words, exchange part of meaning
ex: Im not in the mood for reading
- I’m not in the read for mooding
what are anticipations (speech errors)
& example
- planning to produce a sound, comes out earlier than you meant it to be there
ex: I will also share
- I will alsho share
what are preservations & example
speech errors
- repeat early sounds when shouldnt
ex: Sally gave the boy a treat
- Sally gave the buy a treat
characteristics of speech error (3)
typical letter combinations
- I will alsho share (not: I will alre share)
- not random
- unlikely to create word that begins with an unlikely letter sequence
- likely to create a word, rather than non-word when making this error
within categories of speech
- ex: Im not in the read for mooding (NOT: Im mood in the not for reading)
suggests language produces in stages
- we can mess up planning at various stages
4 stages of language production
1) plan the gist
2) linearization
3) select sounds
4) execute motor movement
what is the “gist”
language production
Gist = overall meaning of the message we intend to generate, begin by producing speech in top-down fashion
what is linearization
language production
- structure sentence, choose words
- Devise the general structure of the sentence, without selecting the exact words, tend to use the same sentence structure that was used in previous sentence
- only produce 1 word and 1 sentence at a time
- Linearization problem challenge of arranging words in an ordered, linear sequence
- – solve problem by choosing sentence with word order
what is the stage of selecting sounds
language production
- phonemes, prosody, orthography
- Phonological encoding
- When choosing sounds, also choosing prosody (raise voice, state as question, authoritatively, how deliver the message)
- Choosing speech sound and way delivering sound – if articulating what we want to say, or writing it out (orthography- letters to represent the sounds)
- Select specific words we want, abandoning other semantically similar words
- Select the appropriate grammatical form
what is a prosody
melody of an utterance, its intonation, rhyme and emphasis
executing motor movement
language production
- muscle movements (coordinate)
- articulation or writing
plan the gist
what you will say will likely depend on semantic memory
ex: if dont recognize the car, then wont know what to say
theory/explanation for speech errors
theory similar to connectionist approach and includes concept of spreading activation
- when about to speak, each element of the word you are planning to say will activate the sound elements to which it is linked
what is grammatical encoding? (3 parts)
1) intended meaning activates word choices
- word order we choose is determined by which word meanings are activated
- incorrect items sometimes have activation levels that are just as high/or higher than the correct items
2) accessible words place early
- what is at beginning of sentence is idea that is currently most active
3) conversational fillers
- ex: umm, ahh, like, so, ya know
- use when thinking ahead, makes in-articulate, state facts as questions
- solve linearization problem
what is phonological encoding?
Anomia problem
- cannot come up with right combo of sounds to produce desired words
- aka lack of naming
- often same as Tip of Tongue
how do gestures influence way of thinking
- ex: spontaneous motor movements of hands sometimes help remember the word you want to produce
- when verbal system cannot retrieve word, a gesture can sometimes activate the relevant information
what is embodied cognition?
- people use bodies to express knowledge
- ongoing connection between motor system and the way we process spoken language
- focuses on concrete physical actions, rather than abstract meaning of language
what is discourse
language units that are larger than a sentence
what is a narrative?
- category of discourse, someone describes a series of actual or fictional events, events are conveyed in a time-related sequence and are often emotionally involving
6 parts of narrative
1) brief overview of story
2) summary of characters and setting
3) action that made the situation complicated
4) point of story
5) resolution of store
6) final signal that narrative is complete
what are pragmatics?
focuses on social rules and world knowledge that allow speakers to successfully communicate messages to other people
4 components of pragmatics
1) turn taking
2) common ground
3) etiquette
4) framing
what is turn taking in pragmatics
supposed to take turns in conversational speech, texting
what is common ground
pragmatics
- occur when conversationalists share the similar background knowledge, schemas, and perspectives that are necessary for mutual understanding
lexical entrainment
- agreeing on what words will mean
- better entrained when know someone better
- feedback that we are on the same page, talking about same thing
what is etiquette
pragmatics
directives- asking someone to do something (2 types)
- anticipate obstacles
ex: is it possible to have salad instead of fries? - — person says no, charge more for salad (obstacle)
- proper and right ways to say things
- state directly
ex: is there something you’d like to share with the class?
2 types of directives (etiquette-pragmatics)
direct request: resolving interpersonal situation/problem by using a very obvious statement/question
indirect request: use subtle suggestions to resolve an interpersonal problem,
what is framing
pragmatics
Frame: describe our mental structures that simplify reality, tend to structure what “counts” as facts
Selecting language to structure thinking
Ex: Can we go to Jim’s party this weekend?
- I’d like to go to Jim’s party this weekend. Will you go with me? (no longer about Jim, the person is being kind to me)
- Structure language to control persons thoughts
3 phases of writing
planning
sentence generation
revising
cognitive components of writing (WM)
WM= brief, immediate memory for material you are currently processing, coordinated ongoing mental activities
- One component of WM is phonological loop: stores limited number of sounds for short period of time
- Component of WM is visuospatial sketchpad: processes both visual and spatial info,
- – visual info is relevant when trying to definite concrete word- likely to create mental image
- – visual activity minimal when trying to define abstract word
- – writing does not require us to emphasize locations (spatial)
- central executive: integrates info from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
- – role in attention, planning, coordinating other cognitive activities
- – active in every phase of writing process- coordinates planning phase, essential when generate sentences, oversees revision process
4 factors that influence LTM
cognitive components of writing (LTM)
1) writers semantic memory
2) specific expertise about topic
3) general schemas
4) knowledge about writing style to be used
3 steps for formal writing assignment
1) prewriting- generating list of ideas, difficult/strategic (help avoid overload attention, resolve linearization problem)
2) sentence generating- translate general ideas developed during planning, creating actual sentences
- fluent alternate with hesitant phrases
3) revision
- organization & coherence
- does paper accomplish goal of assignment
- time consuming
- proofreading stage
2 types of bilingualism
1) simultaneous
- learn 2 or more languages at same time
2) sequential
- learn one language as child, learn other language in different environment
advantages of bilingualism
- greater expertise in 1st language
- executive attention
- cognitive flexibility
- pragmatics
- perform better Stroop task
- better following complicated instructions and when they change
- better at concept formation tasks, reorganization of visual patterns
- score high when require to ignore relevant info
why bilinguals have greater expertise in 1st language
- Identify morphemes (ex: re-mix-ed)
- Understand that words are arbitrary
- — Metalinguistics: knowledge about form and structure of language
- Form and structure separate from meaning
- —- Understand language and grammar better
what is executive attention advantage for bilinguals?
Better at ignoring obvious response and focus on more subtle info
what is pragmatics advantage to bilinguals
example
- More sensitive
- Ex: when speak to blind folded child- must supply additional info
dementia and advantages for bilinguals
- acquired persistent syndrome of cognitive deficits
3 disadvantages of bilinguals
- subtly alter how pronounce some words (both languages)
- process language slightly more slowly
- children have similar vocabularies for words used in home setting
second language proficiency as function of age acquisition
- critical period hypothesis
- age of acquisition age at which you learned a second language
Critical period hypothesis: ability to acquire a second language is strictly limited to a specific period of your life
- Current research does not support
vocabulary as function of age acquisition
- Age of acquisition is not related to language skills, children and adults equally skilled at learning words in new language
- People continue to learn new items in their own language throughout lifetime
phonology as function of age acquisition
- Phonology= sounds of a persons speech
- Age of acquisition does influence master of phonology
- People who acquire 2nd language during childhood more likely to pronounce words like a native speaker of language
grammar as function of age acquisition
• Age of acquisition sometimes related to grammar for people whose first language is different from english, but there may be no relationship when the first language is similar to English
difference between translation and interpretation
& exception
translation
- process of translating from text written in one language into a 2nd written language
Interpreting
- process of changing from spoken message in one language into 2nd spoken language
Exception: sign language-process of changing between spoken message in one language into 2nd language that is signed (vice versa)
One reason why there are more psychological studies on language comprehension than on language production is that
it is difficult to manipulate the ideas that a person wishes to say or write.
Research reveals that if a person is unable to retrieve a word in response to a definition (e.g., “a pendulum-like instrument designed to mark exact time by regular ticking”):
hand gestures may sometimes activate relevant information
When people speak, they begin in: (what processing)
top down
The prosody of an utterance is the
melody of its intonation, rhythm, and emphasis.
A psychological understanding of slip-of-the-tongue errors:
has been advanced with a connectionist theory that includes spreading activation
Knowledge of the social rules that underlie language use (speech communication) is called
pragmatics
The assumption that participants in a conversation have similar background knowledge is known as
common ground
Issues such as common ground and directives relate to an aspect of language called:
pragmatics
A large-scale view of writing focuses on three phases
planning (prewriting), sentence generating, and revising.
Cognitive psychological research on writing:
supports the value of outlining a paper before beginning to write.
Recent research on bilingualism reveals that
bilinguals often display better cognitive skills.
The critical period hypothesis asserts that a person’s ability to acquire a second language is based on a biologically based “deadline.” Recent research related to this hypothesis
does not support
which characteristics of language does age of acquisition of a second language matter most
phonology
The age of acquisition of a second language affects
the speaker’s accent in the second language
Simultaneous interpreters (often misnamed “simultaneous translators”)
seem to have superb working-memory skills.
people who are working on writing assignment are operating on “full cognitive overload” this phrase suggests
writers typically use all the components of working memory as well as LTM
Hsi-Yen came to USA from China when she was 14, compared to her brother who was 5. Hsi-Yen is most likely to have difficulty with
phonology
how is the concept “gist” relevant when you are planning to speak a sentence?
the gist is overall meaning of a message that we want to convey
on which task is a bilingual child likely to have some difficulty, compared to a monolingual child?
processing language quickly
an english prof asked students in his class to revise their papers, he is likely to find that..
most students will examine only one sentence at a time, checking spelling and grammar
according to Dell’s explanation, a slip of the tongue occurs because of
interference from inappropriate sounds that are highly active
a 3rd grader calls out an answer in class, without raising hand.
Teacher says “is your arm broken, johnny?”
the teachers remark can be called an
indirect request
