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2130: Cognitive Neuroscience > chapter 11 > Flashcards

chapter 11 Flashcards

1
Q

3 aspects to problem solving

A

1) understanding the problem
2) problem solving strategies
3) factors that influence problem solving
creativity

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2
Q

what is problem solving based on? & 2 approaches

A

based on heuristics

1) analogy approach (solve problem based on experience with similar previous problems)
2) means-end heuristic (break problem into sub problems than solve individual sub problems)

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3
Q

experts benefit from using _____ (what skills)

A

well developed TOP DOWN skills

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4
Q

overactive top down processing can interfere with _____

its a problem when __

A

interfere with effective problem solving

problem with it encourages stereotype threat

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5
Q

when do you use problem solving

A

when want to reach specified goal

  • solution not immediately obvious because missing information
  • or not clear how to reach goal
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6
Q

3 components of problem solving

A

1) initial state
2) obstacles
3) goal state

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7
Q

what is the initial state of problem solving?

A

situation at beginning of problem

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8
Q

what are obstacles in problem solving

A

restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from initial state to goal state

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9
Q

when do you reach goal state?

A

when solve problem

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10
Q

what is thinking?

A
  • requires you to go beyond the info you were given, so you can reach the goal

goal may be solution, belief or decision

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11
Q

2 aspects of creativity?

A

novel (new never seen before)

useful

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12
Q

3 steps to solve problem

A

1) pay attention
2) understand the problem
3) represent the problem

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13
Q

what is paying attention

in problem solving

A
  • selecting relevant information then attend to that info
  • ignore irrelevant information
  • free of divided attention
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14
Q

example of way to assist yourself in paying attention

A

underlying key words (for exam)

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15
Q

challenge of paying attention

A

focusing on appropriate part

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16
Q

“understand”

A

have constricted a well-organized mental representation of the problem

  • based on information provided in the problem and own previous experience
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17
Q

3 parts to understanding the problem

during problem solving

A

coherence
- problem must make sense

correspondence
- way of thinking must correspond to actual problem

knowledge

  • need to know the information needed to solve the problem
  • word knowledge, semantic, lexical knowledge, schemes
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18
Q

what is problem representation

A

way to translate the elements of the problem into a different format

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19
Q

more likely to reach effect solution in problem (during representing problem- problem solving)

A

more likely if choose appropriate representation

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20
Q

4 ways to represent the problem

A

symbols

matrices

diagrams

images

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21
Q

example of symbol while representing the problem

A

ex: there are 15 times as many students as profs at Dalhousie

s=15p

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22
Q

problem with symbols (representing the problem)

common error

A
  • often make mistakes when try to translate words into symbols
  • may over simplify the sentence so that they misrepresent the info
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23
Q

what are matrices

A

grid consisting of rows and columns that shows all possible combinations of items

  • good way to track info
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24
Q

when to use matrices

A

suitable when info is stable (not changing over time)

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25
Q

benefit of matrices (to students)

A
  • students who represented problem my matrices were likely to solve problem correctly
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26
Q

3 types of diagrams

A

1) schematic
2) hierarchical tree diagram
3) graphs

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27
Q

what are schematic diagrams

who uses them

A
  • puts into symbolic from the different components that comprise a problem
  • engineers and architects
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28
Q

what is a hierarchical tree diagram

A
  • uses tree like structure to show various possible outcomes in a problem
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29
Q

when is hierarchical diagram useful?

A
  • helpful in showing relationship between categorized items

- good for non-academical info (inc satisfaction in customer service)

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30
Q

which type of diagram is best at representing data

A

graphs

  • represent how one thing is related to another
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31
Q

benefits to using graphs

A
  • allow to represent abstract info in concrete fashion

- good when want to represent large amount of info

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32
Q

2 types of images (visual)

A

mental

drawings

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33
Q

when do we use situated cognitive approach

A

often use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations

  • emphasizes the external situation
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34
Q

during situated cognitive approach how do you make dimensions quickly

A

Make decisions about up-down dimension more quickly than decisions about left-right dimension

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35
Q

what is embodied cognition approach?

A

often use our own body and own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge

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36
Q

3 problem solving approaches

A

1) trial and error
2) algorithms
3) heuristics

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37
Q

which problem solving approaches is least effective

A

trial and error

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38
Q

skinners way of training rats which problem solving approach was used

A

trial and error

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39
Q

what are algorithms

A
  • rules (applied same way until solve problem)

- always produce a correct solution (not always efficient)

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40
Q

what is exhaustive search?

A
  • example of algorithms

- try out all possible answers in specific system

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41
Q

approach used in heuristics

A

experience- based approach

  • based on things you know about world
  • like mental shortcuts, try to find efficient way to problem solve
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42
Q

what is a heuristic?

A

general rule that is usually correct

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43
Q

disadvantage of heuristic

A

not always efficient

- do not guarantee a correct solution

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44
Q

how to use heuristics in problem solving

A

Ignore some alternates and explore only those that seem especially likely to produce a solution

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45
Q

3 kinds of heuristics

A

1) hill-climbing
2) means-end analysis
3) analogical reasoning

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46
Q

what is hill-climbing

A
  • keep moving directly towards solution/end point
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47
Q

when is hill climbing ineffective?

A

when need to move away from goal
(to solve problem)

  • ex: rubix cube
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48
Q

how to use hill-climbing method?

A

You reach a choice point- you consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly to goal

  • fail to choose an indirect alternative (may have greater long term benefits)
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49
Q

when is hill-climbing method useful?

A

Useful when do not have enough information about alternatives, because can only see immediate next step (can lead astray)

  • encourages short term goals (rather than long term solutions)
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50
Q

what is means-ends analysis

A
  • divide into sub problems
  • determine end of each and figure out the means for achieving
  • keep decreasing distance between present and desired state
51
Q

example of means ends anaylsis

A

tower of hanoi

  • Blocks on pegs, rules can only move one block at a time, can never place larger block over smaller disk—many steps then think
52
Q

means ends analysis requires you to…

A

to identify the “ends”/final result that you want, and then figure out what the “means”/methods that you will use to reach those ends

53
Q

what is GPS?

A

general problem solver

- basic stategy is means-end analysis, goal is to mimic the process that normal humans use when tackle problem

54
Q

what is the analogy approach

A

employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help solve a new problem

55
Q

what is analogical reasoning

example

A

compare the target to known source

ex: compare computer virus to real virus

56
Q

analogical reasoning uses?

A

problem isomorphs

57
Q

what do people tend to do with analogical reasoning?

A
  • tend to focus more on superficial content of the problem than on its abstract, underlying meaning
  • pay attention to obvious surface features
  • as result, they fail to emphasize the structural features (underlying the core that must understand in order to solve problem correctly)
58
Q

problems with analogical reasoning

A
  • often fail to see analogy between problem they have solved and new problem isomorph that has similar structural features
  • often have problem solving same problem in new setting, fail to transfer their knowledge
    (trouble solving same problem when it is “dressed up” with superficially different cover story)
59
Q

4 sub processes of analogical reasoning

A

1) memory
- WM (target): LTM (source)

2) map and abstract
- extract similarities

3) evaluate
- evaluate effectiveness

4) predict
- new info about target

60
Q

PET scan - analogical reasoning

2 conditions

A
  • analogy and literal condition

analogy condition: shown a compare target, determine if analogous match or miss-match (not identical match)

literal condition: participants see source problem (symbols)
- looking for identical matches

61
Q

part of the brain PET scan shows activity during analogical reasoning

A

looking at view of RH of analogy VS literal
- see activity in parietal and prefrontal areas (areas involved in allocation and attention and WM)

  • analogy - literal (subtract)
62
Q

3 ways to increase use of analogical reasoning

A

1) show similar problems
- if solve enough problems, can draw analogy- create isomorphs

2) instructed to compare problems
- hint, think about it, showing they are isomorphs

2) solved the old and new problems

63
Q

4 factors that influence problem solving

A

1) expertise
2) mental set
3) functional fixedness
4) type of problem

64
Q

benefits to expertise in problem solving

A
  • more effective representation of problem
  • more effective strategies (analogies, means-end)
  • implementation fast and accurate (do tasks in parallel)

better metacognition

  • better understanding if leads to good solution
  • better monitoring problem solving
  • better judging difficulty of problem, better at allocating time
65
Q

what is knowledge base?

expertise

A

experts may solve problems especially well if they have had training of relevant settings

66
Q

when experts encounter novel problem in area of expertise what do they do?

A

more likely to use means end heuristic effectively
- divide problems into sub problems which they solve in specified order

  • more likely to approach problem systematically (novice have haphazard approach)
  • more likely to emphasize the structural similarity between problems (novices- emphasize structural surface similarities)
67
Q

what is a mental set

A

top down mental rut

  • cant think of better way of thinking of problem
  • impairs ability to solve, cannot expect different outcome if doing same thing
68
Q

what is fixed mindset?

A

believe you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and no amount of effort can help you perform better

69
Q

what is growth mind set?

A

believe you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills
- challenge yourself to perform better

70
Q

what is functional fixedness?

A
  • top down mental rut for use of objects

- top down processing is overactive (rely too heavily on previous concepts, expectations, memory)

71
Q

how to solve functional fixedness

A

think outside the box

72
Q

2 types of problems

A

1) non insight

2) insight

73
Q

what are non-insight problems (in problem solving)?

A
  • benefit from verbalization
  • slow and steady progress
  • solve problem gradually, using memory, reasoning skills, and routine set of strategies
74
Q

what are insight problems (in problem solving)?

A
  • immediate solution that arrives unexpectedly

- interference from verbalization (more we talk, less we solve)

75
Q

how to solve insight problems

A

think outside the box

  • abandoning customary top-down assumptions and looking for novel solution
76
Q

people with large WM capacity solve what type of problems better?

A

solve insight problems relatively quickly

77
Q

creativity requires solutions that are (2)

A

novel

useful

78
Q

3 components to creativity

A

1) divergent production
2) incubation
3) investment theory

79
Q

what is divergent production

A
  • mental fluency

creative people able to produce more words starting with specific letter on task

80
Q

divergent thinking vs convergent

A

divergent- come up with all possible solutions (one stimulus, many responses)

convergent- come up with right answer

81
Q

convergent production

A

asks the test-taker to supply a single, best response, and the researchers measure the quality of that response (many solutions require 1 creative silution, rather than several less useful solutions)

82
Q

what is incubation (creativitY)

A
  • mixed evidence
  • insight problems will incubate when turn attention away and to something else
    (when change thoughts, it will come back to you- ah ha moment)
83
Q

what is investment theory

A
  • suggested that creativity you are not born with

- everyone has ability to be creative but it comes with investment

84
Q

6 things needed for investment theory

A

1) intellect
2) knowledge
3) thinking style
4) personality
5) motivation
6) envirnonment

85
Q

intellect in investment theory

A
  • invest time in developing intellect
  • creative people, have good metacognitive awareness
  • have desire and willingness to think about problems
86
Q

knowledge in investment theory

A
  • invest time in accumulating knowledge

- creative people invest time in learning, knowledge

87
Q

thinking style in investment theory

A

Invest in right thinking style
- creative people like thinking (enjoy puzzle, like challenge, don’t back down because difficult, don’t look for easy way out- push themselves to find new info)

88
Q

personality in investment theory

A
  • foster aspects of personality that support creativity

- must have open mind to be creative, willing to try new things

89
Q

what type of motivation is needed in investment theory

A

intrinisic

90
Q

motivation in investment theory

A
  • intrinsically motivated, creative people faster enjoyment, look for things to motivate them and be interesting
  • motivation to work on tasks for own sake (because find it interesting)
91
Q

what is extrinsic motivation

A

motivation to work on task (not because its enjoyable)
- but in order to receive promised reward or to win competition
(often produce less creative projects)

92
Q

environment in investment theory

A
  • have environment that supports creativity (friends)

- invest in people who are supportive of creativity will help foster it

93
Q

what is self-efficacy

A

belief you have the ability to organize and carry out specific task

  • correlated with creativity
94
Q

people with self efficacy tend to

A
  • have high intrinsic motivation (which encourages their creativity)
95
Q

what is preservance

A

ability to keep working on tasks (even when encounter obstacles)
- not consistently correlated with creativity

96
Q

what are gender stereotypes

A
  • beliefs and opinions we associated with females and males
97
Q

what is a stereotype threat

A

if you belong to a group that is hampered by negative stereotype- and you think about your membership in that group- your performance may suffer

  • can produce high arousal (likely to interfere with WM)
98
Q

Cognitive psychologists distinguish problem solving from other kinds of thinking because the study of problem solving focuses on how people

A

encounter and remove obstacles between an initial state and a goal state.

99
Q

The first step in problem solving is to

A

understand the problem

100
Q

The first step in problem solving involves:

A

constructing a mental representation of the problem.

101
Q

Using symbols, matrices, diagrams, and visual images are among the most effective methods of

A

representing a problem.

102
Q

Supporters of a situated-cognition approach argue that a person’s ability to solve a problem is closely linked to the:

A

specific context in which he or she learned to solve that kind of problem.

103
Q

A method that is guaranteed to produce a solution to a problem (although the process may be inefficient) is called:

A

algorithm

104
Q

A problem-solving strategy in which a person ignores some alternatives and only explores those that are most likely to produce a solution is called:

A

heuristic

105
Q

A barrier to the use of an analogy approach to problem solving is that people tend to

A

focus more on the superficial content of a problem than on its abstract, underlying meanings.

106
Q

A problem-solver divided a problem into several subproblems, and then he tried to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the subproblems. Which strategy he use?

A

means-end analysis

107
Q

A recent (2007) study of university students in the United States, Brazil, and India revealed that the students:

A

typically chose the analogy strategy for solving problems

108
Q

Compared with novices, experts generally have

A

greater probability of using parallel processing

109
Q

Research suggests that a person’s performance on a test requiring problem solving, such as the mathematics portion of the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) might:

A

suffer if the person is a member of a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype, such as women.

110
Q

Concerning problem-solving performance, recent research reveals that the stereotype threat:

A

may be heightened (and performance made worse) if a person is made aware of a link between group membership and poor performance.

111
Q

A distinction can be made between problems that are usually solved gradually and problems that are usually solved suddenly. This distinction is between

A

noninsight problems and insight problems, respectively.

112
Q

In the process of arriving at a solution to a problem that initially seems difficult, but results in a rather sudden discovery of the correct solution:

A

metacognitive judgments of confidence increase dramatically when the correct solution is discovered.

113
Q

the requirements, or essential criteria, for calling a problem solution creative are that it:

A

is novel, high quality, and useful

114
Q

One early researcher (Guilford, 1967) proposed that creativity should be measured in terms of divergent production, and he proposed several tests in which a person had to:

A

make a number of varied responses to a test item.

115
Q

On one test of divergent production, people are asked to

A

list as many words as possible that begin with the letter L and end with the letter N

116
Q

Which personality trait is associated with greater creativity?

A

intrinsic motivation

117
Q

according to the research on visual images and problem solving

A

visual images often allow problem solvers to select non traditional solutions for problems

118
Q

imagine you are currently trying to solve a problem

what would be relevant in this situation

A

you may experience divided attention because of distracting ideas

119
Q

supposed that a friend has given you several dozen plastic bottles. You immediately try to think of a variety of creative uses for the bottles. The task you are currently working on is most similar to …

A

divergent production task

120
Q

understanding requires..

A

a close correspondance between situation you need to understand and your own internal representation

121
Q

what is difference between functional fixedness and mental set

A

functional fixedness emphasizes the objects involved in solving the problem

mental set emphasizes the problem solvers strategies

122
Q

one way that functional fixedness and mental set are similar is..

A

both show that we rely too heavily on a strategy that is typically useful

123
Q

computer stimulation called general Problem Solver does..

A

solves problems using means-ends analyisis

2130: Cognitive Neuroscience (10 decks)

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