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Biology 112 > Chapter 41 > Flashcards

Chapter 41 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is nutrition?

A

food being taken in, taken apart, or taken up

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2
Q

All animals are heterotrophs, but…

A

they need to eat enough food and have a balanced diet to survive and reproduce

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3
Q

Three nutritional needs

A
  1. Fuel for cells
  2. Organic materials for biosynthesis
  3. Essential nutrients
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4
Q

Fuel for cells

A

ATP

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5
Q

Organic materials for biosynthesis

A

proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids

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6
Q

carbohydrates

A

sugars

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7
Q

lipids

A

fats

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8
Q

Essential nutrients

A

cannot by synthesized, must be consumed

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9
Q

Examples of essential nutrients

A

some amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins and minerals

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10
Q

Malnutrition

A

occurs when diet lacks one or more essential nutrient or consistently supplies less energy than body needs

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11
Q

What can malnutrition cause?

A

deformities, disease, death

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12
Q

Undernutrition

A

occurs when diet lacks adequate sources of chemical energy (carbs, protein, lipids)

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13
Q

When are humans considered undernourished?

A

If they consume less than the recommended 2,200 kcals/day

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14
Q

Kwashiorkor

A

occurs mainly in children whose diet lacks high quality protein

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15
Q

Marasmus

A

caused by a diet low in protein and calories

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16
Q

Characterized by discolored skin and bloated stomach

A

Kwashiorkor

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17
Q

Characterized by being very thin, shriveled with low resistance to infection

A

Marasmus

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18
Q

Ingestion

A

the act of eating/feeding

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19
Q

Hydrolysis

A

using water to break down food

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20
Q

Digestion

A

breakingn down food into absorbable molecules

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21
Q

Two types of digestion

A
  1. Mechanical digestion

2. Chemical digestion

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22
Q

Mechanical digestion

A

breaks food into smaller pieces (chewing)

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23
Q

Chemical digestion

A

chemical breakdown of food particles into nutrients via enzymes

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24
Q

What are nutrients used for?

A

energy and biosynthesis

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25
Q

Protiens

A

amino acids

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26
Q

Carbohydrates

A

sugars

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27
Q

Lipids

A

fatty acids and glycerol

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28
Q

Absorption

A

cells take up (absorb) nutrients through the bloodstream

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29
Q

Steps to processing food

A
  1. Ingestion
  2. Digestion
  3. Absorption
  4. Elimination
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30
Q

Elimination

A

undigested material exits through the digestive track

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31
Q

How is it that animals do not digest their own cell tissues?

A

Digestive compartments

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32
Q

Digestive compartments

A

food processing happens in specialized areas of the body to prevent enzymes from breaking down animals’ own tissues

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33
Q

Digestion can be…

A

Intracellular or extracellular

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34
Q

Intracellular digestion

A

food particle engulfed by the cell

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35
Q

Where does intracellular digestion occur?

A

within organelles that contain digestive enzymes

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36
Q

Extracellular digestion

A

occurs outside cells in a specialized compartment and is continuous with exterior

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37
Q

When is food “inside” the body

A

nutrients cross a layer of cells (absorption)

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38
Q

Two types of extracellular digestion

A
  1. Gastrovascular cavity

2. Alimentary canal

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39
Q

Step 1 of the Gastrovascular cavity

A

Digestive enzymes are released from a gland cell

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40
Q

Step 2 of the gastrovascular cavity

A

enzymes break food down into small particles

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41
Q

Step 3 of the gastrovascular cavity

A

food particles are engulfed and digested in food vacuoles

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42
Q

Gastrovascular cavity

A

digestive sac with a single opening that functions as a mouth and anus

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43
Q

What does the gastrovascular cavity function in?

A

digestion and circulation of nutrients

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44
Q

Where is gastrovascular cavity observed in?

A

simple animals

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45
Q

Alimentary canal

A
  1. complete digestive tract
  2. two openings
  3. food moves in one direction
  4. specialized regions for different tasks
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46
Q

Two openings in alimentary canal

A

mouth and anus

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47
Q

Accessory glands of alimentary canal

A

secrete digestive juices through ducts into the canal

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48
Q

4 types of accessory glands

A
  1. Salivary glands
  2. Liver
  3. Pancreas
  4. Gullbladder
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49
Q

Peristaisis

A

alternate waves of contractions and relaxation in the smooth muscle lining the canal

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50
Q

What does the peristaisis do?

A

propels food

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51
Q

Sphincters

A

muscular valves that regulate passage of material between segmenets

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52
Q

What occurs in the oral cavity

A

mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

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53
Q

Mechanical digestion increases…

A

SA

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54
Q

What occurs during chemical digestion?

A
  1. Salivary glands release saliva

2. Salivary amylase begins carb digestion

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55
Q

What does the tongue do?

A

shapes the food into a bolus and pushes it to the pharynx

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56
Q

Pharynx

A

“throat,” opens to trachea and esophagus

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57
Q

Epiglottis

A

blocks trachea during swallowing

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58
Q

Esophagus

A

moves food from pharynx to stomach

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59
Q

What types of muscles near top of esophagus?

A

Skeletal (swallowing)

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60
Q

What type of muscles in the middle to lower esophagus?

A

Switches to smooth (involuntary contractions (peristalsis))

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61
Q

Stomach

A

food storage

62
Q

the stomach is where the preliminary digestion of ____ occurs

A

proteins

63
Q

What is the stomach lined with

A

epithelial tissue

64
Q

Where do stomach pits lead to?

A

gastric glands that secrete gastric juice

65
Q

Gastric juice mixes with food to form ____

A

chyme

66
Q

Chief cells

A

secrete pepsinogen

67
Q

Where are chief cells found?

A

stomach

68
Q

Pepsinogen

A

protein digesting enzyme (protease)

69
Q

What does pepsinogen break?

A

long protein chains into smaller chains

70
Q

Parietal cells

A

secrete HCI and gives gastric juice low pH (2)

71
Q

Where are parietal cells

A

stomach

72
Q

What do parietal cells disrupt?

A

the extracellular matrix that binds cells together in meat and plant mater

73
Q

What does parietal cells kill

A

bacteria

74
Q

What do parietal cells unfold

A

protein

75
Q

What does parietal cells convert pesinogen into

A

active pepsin

76
Q

Mucus cells

A

secrete mucus

77
Q

What do mucus cells do for the stomach?

A

lubricates and protects stomach lining from gastric juice

78
Q

What do chief cells release?

A

pepsinogen

79
Q

What do parietal cells do?

A

release HCI and convert pepsinogen into pepsin

80
Q

Where are pepsin and HCI formed?

A

outside of cells (in lumen)

81
Q

What does mucus secreted by mucous cells do?

A

protects stomach ining from gastric juice

82
Q

Contents of the stomach are mixed by…

A

smooth muscles

83
Q

The stomach combines…

A

food and enzymes into acid chyme

84
Q

Chyme then moves to…

A

the small intestine

85
Q

what is the small intestine controlled by?

A

Pyloric sphincter

86
Q

Small intestine

A

longest compartment of alimentary canal

87
Q

The small intestine is the site of..

A

most digestion and ALL nutrient absorption

88
Q

The small intestine consists of the…

A
  1. duodenum
  2. jejunum
  3. lleum
89
Q

Duodenum (first 25 cm)

A

digestion completes in this section

90
Q

What occurs in the duodenum?

A

Chyme mixes with digestive juices from pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and small intestine

91
Q

Two portions of the pancreas

A
  1. endocrine

2. exocrine

92
Q

Endocrine

A

directly to bloodstream

- insulin and glucagon

93
Q

Exocrine

A

ducts

- digestive secretions

94
Q

Digestive secretions

A

bicarbonate-rich alkaline (basic) solution that buffers acidic chyme

95
Q

Hydrolytic enzymes

A
  1. Pancreatic amylases
  2. Pancreatic trypsin and chymotryspin
  3. Pancreatic nucleases
  4. Pancreatic lipases
96
Q

Pancreatic amylases

A

carbohydrates

97
Q

pancreatic tryspin and chymotryspin

A

proteins

98
Q

pancreatic nucleases

A

nucleic acids

99
Q

pancreatic lipases

A

lipids

100
Q

Liver

A

produces bile that is stored in the gallbladder

101
Q

Bile

A

contains bile salts that serve to break down lipids (emulsifiers)

102
Q

Where does absorption take place

A

jejunum and ileum of small intestine

103
Q

What forms villi

A

folds in the epithelial tissue lining the intestine

104
Q

microvilli

A

tiny projections each cell has

105
Q

What do villi and microvilli do together

A

increase surface area for nutrient absorption

106
Q

What does the core of each vilus contain?

A

blood vessels andn a lacteal for nutrient distribution

107
Q

Sugars and amino acids

A

enter blood stream directly

108
Q

What do capillaries and veins converge to form?

A

Hepatic portal vein

109
Q

Where do hepatic portal veins carry nutrient rich blood?

A

directly to the liver where detoxification occurs

110
Q

Where do nutrients from from the liver to?

A

the heart, where they are then pumped to toher tissues in the body

111
Q

what are fats repackaged into and where do they enter?

A

they are repackaged into chylomicrons and enter lacteals (lmphatic vessels)

112
Q

Where does the lymphatic system eventually carry chylomicrons to?

A

large veins that return blood to the heart

113
Q

What does teh large intestine consist of?

A
  1. cecum
  2. colon
  3. rectum
114
Q

cecum

A

ferments ingested material

115
Q

appendix

A

a projection of cecum and plays a minor role in immunity

116
Q

colon

A

leads to rectum and anus

117
Q

what is the colon responsible for?

A

reabsorption of water to produce feces - fiber hels move food along

118
Q

rectum

A

stores feces until elimination

119
Q

Three adaptations the text covers

A
  1. dental adaptations
  2. stomach and intestinal adaptations
  3. mutualistic adaptations
120
Q

Carnivore

A

kill, rip, tear, shred

121
Q

Herbivore

A

bite veg. and grind

122
Q

Omnivore

A

bladelike incisor-bite, pointed canines-tear molars-grind/crush

123
Q

Digestive system of carnivores

A

relativel short digestive tract for absorbing nutrients from meat

124
Q

Digestive system of herbivore

A

relatively long (more time and surface area for absorption)

125
Q

Why do carnivores also have large expandable stomachs?

A

uncertainty of meals so they eat as much as they can

126
Q

Why do herbivores also have long cecum with bacteria

A

to facilitate digestion of plant material

127
Q

Enteric division of the nervous system

A

activates parts of the digestive system at the appropriate time

128
Q

What does the enteric division of the nervous system trigger?

A

secretion of substances that promote next stage of digestion

129
Q

What does enteric division stimulate?

A

peristalsis

130
Q

Endocrine system

A

secretes hormones that control digestive secretions

131
Q

What does energy from food replace?

A

energ lost during metabolism, activity, and storage

132
Q

Excess nutrients are stored…

A

sugars are stored as glycogen in liver and muscle

133
Q

Once glycogen stores are full…

A

excess sugar is converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue

134
Q

Glucose

A

the primar fuel for cells

135
Q

What does regulation of glucose rely on?

A

opposing effects of insulin and glucagon

136
Q

Where is glucose produced in?

A

pancreatic islets

137
Q

alpha cells

A

produce glucagon

138
Q

beta cells

A

produce insulin

139
Q

Concequence of disrupted glucose homeostasis

A
  1. deficiency of insulin (type 1)

2. decreased response to insulin (type 2)

140
Q

Blood glucose levels rise but…

A

cells cannot take up enough to meet metabolic needs

141
Q

What becomes the main energy source when blood glucose levels rise?

A

fat

142
Q

Excess glucose in the blood excreted in…

A

the urine

143
Q

Whater excreted with the glucose, leading to:

A
  1. increased urination
  2. increased thirst
  3. increased hunger
144
Q

Type 1

A
  1. usually begins in childhood
  2. body destroys beta cells, leading to lack of insulin
  3. treated with insulin injections
145
Q

Type 2

A
  1. usually begins later in life
  2. target cells do not respond to insulin, and therefore do not uptake glucose
  3. often can be treated with diet and exercise, some patiente require medication
146
Q

Feedback loops and hormones control appetite, nutrient storage, and me tabolism

A
  1. Grehlin
  2. PYY
  3. Insulin
  4. Leptin
147
Q

Grehlin

A

secreted by stomach wall when empty

triggers feelings of hunger

148
Q

PYY

A

secreted by small intestine after meals

suppresses appetite

149
Q

Insulin

A

Secreted by pancrease after meals

Suppresses appetite

150
Q

Leptin

A

Produced by adipose tissue

Suppresses appetite

Biology 112 (13 decks)

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