Chapter 4 (sections 4 & 5), Chapter 5 & Chapter 6 Flashcards
T or F: Some animals have no form of chemical sense
F
Olfactory perception accessory structures
nose, mouth, upper part of the throat
Olfactory perception
recieves messages regarding smells, goes through the olfactory bulb in the brain, does not connect through the thalamus
Gustatory perception accessory structure
mouth
Gustatory perception
detects chemicals in solutions that contact receptors in the mouth, about 10,000 taste buds in a person’s mouth
Tastebuds
grouped in structures called papillae, most on the tongue
Most familiar elementary sensations for the tongue
sweet, sour, bitter, salty; produced by an interaction b/w taste and smell
Where does transduction occur with touch?
in receptors or right below the skin
How does the skin encode intensity of a stimulus?
firing rate of individual neurons, number of neurons stimulated
perception
interpreting sensations using knowledge and understanding of the world
psychophysics
concerned with measuring perception: present people with a stimulus and ask them to report their perception, how much stimulation
threshold
boundary/level
absolute threshold
the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time
subliminal stimulation
below the absolute threshold–stimulus too weak/brief for us to notice
supraliminal stimulation
above the absolute threshold–consistently detected/perceived
difference threshold
smallest difference b/w stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time
JND
Just Noticeable Difference
Weber’s Law
The difference threshold is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus with which the comparison is being made
Fechner’s law
the stronger the stimulus/greater the magnitude of the stimulus, the bigger the change needed for a difference in stimulus intensity to be noticeable
K (constant) for weight as a stimulus
.02 or 2%
What school of thought conducted research on perception?
Gestalt Psychology
Perceptual organization (definition)
to make sense out of the things you see, you must impose some sort of organization
2 principles influencing perceptual organization
figure-ground & grouping
figure-ground
we organize stimuli into a central/foreground figure and a background
grouping
we put things together into groups
figure
part of visual field that has meaning, stands in front of the rest
ground
background
Principles of Grouping
proximity, similarity, continuity, closure
proximity
closer objects/events are to one another perceived as belonging together
similarity
similar elements that look alike
continuity
creates a continuous form/pattern
closure
filling in missing contours to form a complete object
perceptual set
a readiness to perceive stimuli in a certain way. Expectation, culture or experience can influence your perceptions, can impact a person’s perception of an object
perceptual constancies
allow us to recognize familiar stimuli under varying conditions, experience a stable perception, even though sensory output is changing you see things as the same
size constancy
changes in size of a retinal image, not change in actual size
shape constancy
the perceived shape of an object remains the same, even when seen at different angles
brightness/color constancy
brightness or color of object remains the same under different conditions or illumination, object seen as bright/same color regardless of lighting conditions
depth perception
distance between objects
binocular depth cues
require use of both eyes
eye convergence
produced by feedback from the muscles in your eyes. your eyes rotate inwards to view a close object or project it onto the retina
binocular disparity aka retinal display
each eye sees a different image, slight viewing angle in each eye
monocular depth cues
cues about distance that require only one eye
linear perspective
perception that parallel lines converge in the distance
interposition/partial overlap
objects closer to us may cut off part of your view of more distant objects
elevation
height in horizontal plane
texture gradient
closer objects have greater detail
relative size
if 2 objects are of smaller size, the one that looks smaller will be judged to be farther away
non-pictorial cue > motion parallax
if we are moving, nearby objects appear to move faster than ones farther off
ocular accomadation
changes in the ability of the lens to change its shape
depth perception in infancy
when do we perceive depth? fear and avoidance of dangerous depth don’t develop until an infant is old enough to crawl
perception of movement/motion
important: whether an object is moving, how fast it is going and where it is heading
perception of movement/motion
important: whether an object is moving, how fast it is going and where it is heading
2 types of motion
real motion, apparent motion
2 types of motion
real motion, apparent motion
real motion
physical displacement of an object from one position to another
real motion
physical displacement of an object from one position to another
looming (real motion)
involves a rapid expansion in the size of an image so it fills the retina. you interpret the stimulus as it’s approaching
looming (real motion)
involves a rapid expansion in the size of an image so it fills the retina. you interpret the stimulus as it’s approaching
apparent motion
perceive motion when there is none
habitation
simplest form of learning, decrease in response to unchanging stimuli over time
stroboscopic illusion (apparent motion)
illusion of movement/motion, created when we see slightly different images of slightly displaced lights flashed in rapid succession
stroboscopic illusion (apparent motion)
illusion of movement/motion, created when we see slightly different images of slightly displaced lights flashed in rapid succession
autokinetic illusion (apparent motion)
perceived motion created by a single stationary object, caused by slight movement of eye muscles
autokinetic illusion (apparent motion)
perceived motion created by a single stationary object, caused by slight movement of eye muscles
illusions
compelling but incorrect perceptions, doesn’t correspond to reality, visual stimuli that fool the eye
illusions
compelling but incorrect perceptions, doesn’t correspond to reality, visual stimuli that fool the eye
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior and understanding due to experience
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior and understanding due to experience
Additional terminology of classical conditioning (2)
acquisition, trial
classical conditioning
making an association between 2 stimuli (by pairing them) such that 1 stimulus comes to elicit a response that originally elicited by the other stimulus
Ivan Pavlov
Russian psychologist who taught dogs to salivate to tone
Basic terminology of classical conditioning (5)
neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,conditioned stimulus (same as NS), conditioned response
Neutral stimulus
stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response in an organism
forward trace
the NS appears and then disappears and then the UCS is presented a fraction to 1-2 secs later
Unconditioned response
not learned response. a reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus w/o prior learning
Conditioned stimulus
learned stimulus. a stimulus that, through association w/a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR
Conditioned response
learned response, a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
Additional terminology of classical conditioning (2)
acquisition, trial
stimulus generalization (c. conditioning)
stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR
trial
each time NS & UCS is presented together
types of interval pairings (4)
forward short-delay, forward trace, simultaneous, backward
forward short-delay
NS appears 1st and is still present when the UCS appears
psychologists involved in operant conditioning
E.L. Thorndike & B.F. Skinner
simultaneous
the UCS is presented before the NS
when is classical conditioning the strongest
there are repeating NS-UCS pairings, short time b/w NS & UCS
extinction (classical conditioning)
a process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear
spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)
the reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period & w/o new learning trials
stimulus generalization
stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR
discrimination (c. conditioning)
a CR occurs in the prescence of 1 stimulus but not others
higher-order conditioning
occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS, produces a CR that is weaker & extinguishes more rapidly than the original CR. can be thought of as replacing UCS
instrumental and operant conditioning (definition)
behavior is controlled by its consequences, making an association b/w response and consequence(s)
psychologists involved in operant conditioning
E.L. Thorndike & B.F. Skinner
Thorndike studied [blank].
the process by which animals utilize trial and error to achieve desired outcome. studied animals’ intelligence & ability to solve problems
Law of Effect
a response followed by a satisfying consequence is strenghened & more likely to be repeated, a response followed by an annoying consequence is weakened and less likely to be repeated
Skinner box
a special chamber used to study operant conditioning experimentally
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
distinguishes between 2 types of behavior
respondent behavior
stimulus elicits a response, focuses on antecedents of behavior, behavior seen in classical conditioning
operant behavior
stimulus emits a response, focus on consequences of behavior, behavior studied in operant conditioning
reinforcement
increase in behavior (process)
reinforcer
stimulus given or removed (object)
punishment
decrease in behavior
positive reinforcement
increase in behavior by GIVING something pleasant
negative reinforcement
increase in behavior by REMOVING something unpleasant
primary reinforcer
stimulus that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. ex: food & water
secondary reinforcer
learned through classical conditioning, stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties through their association w/ a primary reinforcer. ex: money and praise
Positive reinforcer
pleasant stimulus that is given
Negative reinforcer
aversive stimulus that is removed/avoided
punishment
response weakened by an outcome that follows it
positive punishment
decrease in behavior by GIVING something unpleasant
negative punishment
decrease in behavior by REMOVING something pleasant
drawbacks of punishment
can become aggression if given in anger, does not “erase” an undesirable habit, can produce unwanted side effects
effective punishment - basic principles
must occur after every transgression, must be swift, must be sufficient, should always include instructions
additional terminology of operant conditioning (8)
acquisition, shaping, schedule of reinforcement, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, Premack’s principle escape v avoidance conditioning
acquisition (c. conditioning)
the period during which a response is being learned, measured in trials
acquistion (o. conditioning)
amount of time it takes to make association b/w response & consequence. wait for a behavior and then reinforce it
shaping
reinforcing successive approximations towards a final response
schedule of reinforcement
timetable for determining when a behavior should get reinforcement
continuous
reinforce every correct response, very fast learning, very fast extinction
partial/intermittent
only a fraction of the time that the behavior is engaged in will be reinforced
fixed v variable reinforcement
set v changing
ratio v interval
behavior (response) v time
four partial schedules of reinforcement
fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval
fixed ratio
reinforce set number of correct responses
fixed interval
reinforce at set time intervals (have to engage in behavior first)
variable ratio
reinforce unpredictable, changing number of correct responses, average responses
variable interval
reinforce at unpredictable changing time intervals, average time
partial reinforcement effect
variable schedules make behaviors resistant to extinction, quickest learning under continuous schedule, but extinction occurs quickly under continuous, stronger response rate with variable schedules, weaker response rate with fixed interval
extinction (o. conditioning)
the weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced
extinction burst
behavior increases rapidly before it decreases during operant extinction
spontaneous recovery (o. conditioning)
an extinguished response returns w/o reinforcement after a delay in presentation of stimulus
generalization (o. conditioning)
an operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus or situation that is similar to the original one
discrimination (o. conditioning)
an operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not to another
Premack’s principle
reinforcing a less desired behavior w/a more desired one, also called “Grandma’s Rule”
Escape (o. conditioning)
learning to end painful stimuli, painful stimulus is present
avoidance (o. conditioning)
responding to a signal to avoid a painful stimulus, painful stimulus is never present
