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AP Bio > Chapter 35 (with 32 and 33) - Immune system (overview and in the context of Cell Signaling) > Flashcards

Chapter 35 (with 32 and 33) - Immune system (overview and in the context of Cell Signaling) Flashcards

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1
Q

T or F all animals have innate immunity

A

true

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2
Q

T or F innate immunity is slow

A

false

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3
Q

Phase one of innate immunity

A

Natural barriers like skin and mucus to keep the baddies out

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4
Q

Phase 2 of innate immunity

A

Phagocytes, the inflammatory response, and natural killer cells eat, alert, and pop the baddies (with apoptosis) - this is INSIDE you

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5
Q

Is innate immunity specific? What does that entail?

A

Not specific - broad traits, fewer receptors

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6
Q

T or F all animals have adaptive immunity

A

False, just vertebrates

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7
Q

T or F adaptive immunity is slow

A

t

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8
Q

What is the Humoral response?

A

Part of adaptive immunity - antibodies defend against infection in body fluid (with the b cells and stuff)

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9
Q

What is the cell-mediated response?

A

Part of adaptive immunity - cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells

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10
Q

Is adaptive immunity specific? What does that entail?

A

Yes - specific traits, many receptors

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11
Q

Describe the process of phagocytosis and include organelles and molecules

A
  1. Phagocyte uses cell membrane and pseudopodia (grabbers) to surround the pathogens and engulf them through endocytosis
  2. A vacuole forms and engulfs the pathogens and merges with a lysosome containing destructive enzymes
  3. The contents fuse, the pathogens are destroyed, and the waste is released by exocytosis
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12
Q

What is a toll like receptor and what does it do?

A

They are receptors that recognize a molecular pattern characteristic of a group of pathogens and trigger internal innate immune defense (they aren’t the only ones triggering it though) - they use some cell to cell and autocrine signaling? I don’t know

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13
Q

What is a neutrophil?

A

Phagocyte - Part of innate immunity - engulfs and destroys pathogens but doesn’t display their body parts

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14
Q

What is a macrophage

A

Big phagocyte that engulfs and eats the pathogen and displays its antigens to signal infection

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15
Q

What does a natural killer cell do?

A

It detects abnormal surface proteins on infected body cells and releases chemicals to pop it using apoptosis

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16
Q

What does a dendritic cell do?

A

IT populates the tissues that contact the environment and stimulates adaptive immunity against pathogens they encounter and engulf

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17
Q

How does a local inflammatory response prevent infection when you get a cut?

A
  1. Mast cells release histamines and macrophages secrete cytokines
  2. The histamines use paracrine (they are the ligand but also this might be wrong) signaling to dilate the capillaries and let antimicrobial peptides and neutrophils enter the tissue
  3. The cytokines use endocrine (i hope though keep in mind they are the ligand) signaling to call over the neutrophils so they can digest the pathogens and debris
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18
Q

What is pus and how does it indicate infection and defense (to you not your cells)

A

Mixture of white blood cells, dead pathogens, and tissue debris - pathogens were there but the white blood cells have been eating good

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19
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A surface molecule found on specific pathogens that can be used to tell what they are.

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20
Q

What is an antibody and where does it work?

A

It is a soluble form of an antigen receptor that is made by B cells. These have a specific lock and key fit with the epitopes (like active site but not) of the antigens, allowing them to bind.

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21
Q

What is antigen receptor specificity?

A

Specific lock and key fit of antigen to antibody epitopes. This works for free floating antigens or attached antigens. They’re so specific that antibodies can recognize different epitopes on the same antigen.

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22
Q

What do the antigen receptors of T cells look like?

A

They have an alpha chain and a beta chain that have an antigen binding site, variable and constant regions, and a disulfide bridge.

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23
Q

What is a Major Histocompatability complex (or MHC) and how do the immune cells use this in signaling?

A

the host protein that displays the antigen fragment on the cell surface. These allow T cells to recognize the antigens (so they’re good)

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24
Q

How do T cells bind to APCs (antigen presenting cells) and what kind of cell signaling is that?

A

APCs eat and display antigens with their MHC molecules. This allows the T cell antigen receptors to bind to them. This is juxtacrine/cell to cell signaling.

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25
Q

How do B and T cells generate cellular and antibody diversity? (best question ever)

A

They take the undifferentiated DNA, rearrange it, transcribe it, process it, and translate it so it becomes a light chain polypeptide. Many combinations = lots of diversity. And more diversity means fight more stuff.

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26
Q

What is a plasma cell and what does it do?

A

Type of effector cell (acts immediately, dies fast, result of clone) that secretes antibodies (type of B cell)

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27
Q

Describe the clonal selection process

Like for B cells

A
  1. Antigen binds to 1 type of b cell (not memory) and it clones itself a lot.
  2. some cells become memory cells to act quickly on the same antigen
  3. others become plasma cells to secrete antibodies
    I believe this is paracrine signaling?
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28
Q

What is the difference between the primary and secondary immune response?

Apart from the primary one being first and the secondary one being after

A

Primary is less strong as your body has to make the stuff for the first time, secondary is stronger, faster, and longer

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29
Q

What makes secondary response better?

A

It has the T and B memory cells to detect and fight the pathogen

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30
Q

How does the APC signal the Helper T cell? (part 1 of cute diagram)

A

The APC ingests a pathogen and displays its antigens. It then binds to the helper T cell, signaling it with juxtacrine signaling.

31
Q

How do APCs signal B cells that an infection is there? (part 2B of cute diagram)

A

The APC and Helper T cell release cytokines which reach B cells via paracrine signaling

32
Q

How do APCs signal T cells that an infection is there? (part 2A of cute diagram)

A

The APC and helper t cells release cytokines - those can go right back to the T cells via autocrine signaling

33
Q

What do B cells do when they receive the cytokines from the APC? (part 3B of the cute diagram)

A

They clone themselves a bunch of times and make some memory cells and a lot of plasma cells that secrete antibodies to signal infection as a part of humoral (fluid) immunity

34
Q

What do T cells do when they receive the cytokines from the APC? (part 3A of the cute diagram)

A

They clone themselves a bunch and make some memory cells and a lot of cytotoxic T cells to kill the pathogens as a part of cell mediated immunity

35
Q

What do cytotoxic T cells do?

A

They bind to the antigen fragment complex on an infected cell, release perforin molecules to open their membranes, granzymes go in and break down the proteins, initiating apoptosis and killing the cell - think of poison tipped sword

36
Q

Describe the reception, transduction and response stages of plasma b cells getting made

A

Reception - B cell receives cytokine ligand
Transduction - The signal is transduced and enters nucleus as a transcription factor
Response - The B cell proliferates into tons of plasma cells (and some memory B cells I guess)

37
Q

What is an allergy?

A

It’s a hypersensitive reaction to specific antigens (called allergens :D)

38
Q

What happens in the body when you come into contact with the thing you’re allergic to?

A

EG Hay fever: Mast cells release histamines and other inflammatory chemicals, sometimes so many that they make the bronchioles constrict and dilate blood vessels and kill the person

39
Q

What is an autoimmune disease + examples

A

The immune system is active against particular molecules of the body and the body targets itself (eg lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, etc)

40
Q

How does animal nutrition differ from plant nutrition?

A

Plants are autotrophs and use photosynthesis to make their own food, while animals are heterotrophs and get their carbon and energy by consuming other things

41
Q

How does plant growth differ from animal growth?

A

Both use hormones, Plants have hormones that can act locally or travel through the body, while animals have traveling hormones that act on specific tissues (does that make sense? no? didn’t make sense then, doesn’t make sense now. Thanks textbook >:( )

42
Q

What is a regulator (as in animal not competitive or allosteric or smth like that) and what is another word for that when talking about blood temperature?

A

A regulator uses internal mechanisms to control internal change when there are external fluctuations - endotherm (or warm blooded ig)(heat gained from metabolism warms body)

43
Q

What is a conformer (animal) and what is another word for that when referring to blood temperature?

A

A conformer allows external changes to determine the internal condition - ectotherm (or cold blooded ig)(heat gained from external sources)

44
Q

Define homeostasis

A

Maintaining internal balance/a steady state of body

45
Q

Define stimulus

A

A change in a variable (above or below the set point) that causes a response to happen

46
Q

Define sensor (be sure to check unit and card number for this one)

A

A receptor that can detect a stimulus

47
Q

Define set point

A

the normal level that the homeostatic system keeps a variable atDe

48
Q

Describe why humans keep temperature near a homeostatic set point

A

keeps enzyme activity high, maintains cell membrane fluidity, and keeps other biochemical processes going

49
Q

What’s the stimulus when you are cold?

A

Body temp falls below set point

50
Q

What is the sensor when you are too cold?

A

Neurons in skin and other organs send a message to your brain

51
Q

What is the control center (i don’t like this term but oh well) when you are too cold? (I THINK it means integrating sensor)

A

Hypothalamus in your brain sends signals to the organs to activate warming mechanisms

52
Q

What is the effector/response when you are too cold?

A

Muscles receive information from your brain and rapidly contract, causing shivering to warm you up. Also, blood vessels in your skin get messages from your brain to cause them to constrict and hide deeper in your tissues and reduce heat loss (this is why you get goosebumps)

53
Q

What is the control center when you get too hot? (I THINK it means integrating sensor)

A

Thermostat in hypothalamus sends signals to organs to activate cooling mechanisms

54
Q

What is the effector and response when you are too hot?

A

Sweat glands secrete sweat, which evaporates to cool the body. Blood vessels in the skin dilate, capillaries fill with warm blood, heat radiates from the skin surface

55
Q

what is a hormone

A

A signaling molecule (yes a ligand) broadcast throughout the body by the endocrine system.

56
Q

Summarize neuron signaling

A

when a stimulus is received, the cell body of a neuron sends a nerve impulse along an axon to a specific location. The response is limited to cells connected by specialized junctions to an axon that transmits an impulse. (do the wave everyone)

57
Q

What is the job of an endocrine gland?

A

These are grouped endocrine cells in ductless (straight into bloodstream) organs - these secrete hormones in to the surrounding fluid

58
Q

Example of endocrine gland and partner hormone

A

Thyroid gland - secretes thyroid hormone (T3 and T4), which stimulates and maintains metabolic processes

59
Q

Negative feedback + example

A

using a control circuit that reduces the stimulus and brings levels back to the set point - such as blood glucose regulation (even if you add more sugar it’s still negative feedback)

60
Q

Describe how blood glucose regulation works when it’s too high

A

Too high - pancreas senses, brain integrates, beta cells are effectors, they release insulin to make cell membrane channels open and lets glucose enter and tells the liver to store extra glucose as glucagon (and when it goes into the cells it goes to the mitochondria for glycolysis)

61
Q

Describe how blood glucose regulation works when it’s too low

A

Pancreas senses, brain integrates and controls, alpha cells increase glucagon and tell the liver to break it down into glucose (take stored sugar and break it

62
Q

Positive feedback + example

A

A control mechanism where response reinforces stimulus and increases the response to go further from the set point - eg contractions during childbirth until baby arrives

63
Q

where is receptor if ligand is soluble

A

cytosol

64
Q

where is receptor if ligand is not soluble

A

surface of membrane

65
Q

how can same hormone and receptor have different responses in different cells?

A

different signal transduction pathway or effector protein

66
Q

how can same hormone with different receptors have different responses?

A

sends different signals to the signal transduction pathway (which might also be different) then the response will be different

67
Q

Why is it important for one hormone to have multiple effects?

A

You don’t need to make 1000000000000 different hormones to get the jobs done. It’s efficient

68
Q

Why do animals regulate digestion

A

Some go for long periods of time without food so they don’t leave all the systems running all the time and waste energy so instead if one process is going it triggers the next and so on

69
Q

How do hormones help control digestion and how is it linked to cell signaling

A

With the magic of endocrine signaling, hormones are released by the stomach and duodenum to ensure digestive secretions are only present when needed

70
Q

What happens to you when you have diabetes mellius?

A

Insulin deficiency or decreased response to it in target cells. You can’t absorb water or sugar very well so you pee a lot and it’s sweet.

71
Q

What is type 1 diabetes?

A

An autoimmune disease which really hates your beta cells in the pancreas and means you’re not getting insulin and will have high blood sugar and must take insulin shots and you’re born with it

72
Q

What is type 2 diabetes?

A

A disease correlated with obesity and doesn’t require insulin shots to survive and the 7th biggest cause of death in the USA and means your cells don’t normally respond to insulin

73
Q

how is fruit ripening an example of positive feedback?

A

Ethylene hormone released by an apple
Received by other apples
They ripen and release more ethylene
Continues until all the apples are super dead

AP Bio (14 decks)

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